各章重点，学习资料整理
1.1 What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1.2 Design features of language
①Arbitrariness任意性： The property of language by which there is in general no natural （i。e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning。
②Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower
(secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds， which combine to form meaningful units which constitute a higher (primary) level。
③Creativity创造性 Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before。
④Displacement移位性 By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication。
1.3 Functions of language
①Informative信息功能 Language serves an informative function when it is
used to express the speaker's opinion， to state a fact， or to reason things out。 ②Interpersonal function人际功能 Language serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.
③Performative行事功能 Language can be used to do things， to perform action。
e.g. “I surrender.” “I'll do it tonight。\" “I declare the meeting open.” “ I sentence you to three years in prison.”
④Emotive function感情功能 The use of language to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker。
e。g。 “Ouch！”, “I’m terribly sorry about… ” (alternatively called expressive function）
⑤Phatic communion寒暄交谈 The use of language to establish or maintain a comfortable social contact between people without involving any factual content. E。g。 greetings， farewells, and talking about the weather。
⑥Recreational function娱乐功能 The use of language for the sheer joy of using it. E。g. singing, poetry writing.
⑦Metalingual function元语言功能 The use of language to make statements about language itself。 The language about which they are made is called the object language。
1.4 What is linguistics？
The scientific study of language.
1.5 Microlinguistics
①Phonetics语音学 The study of the nature， production, and perception of sounds of speech， in abstraction from the phonology of any specific language. Variously divided into acoustic phonetics, articulatory phonetics, and auditory phonetics。
②Phonology音系学 The study of the sound systems of individual languages and of the nature of such systems generally。
③Morphology形态学 Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word—formation processes.
④Syntax句法学 The branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences。
⑤Semantics语义学 The study of meaning。
⑥Pragmatics语用学 The study of the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts。 1.6 Language and culture
Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use。
1.7 Maximal Onset Principle （MOP)最大节前辅音原则
Which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant， it is put into the onset rather than the code。 1.8 Important distinctions in linguistics
①Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写vs.规定
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyzes linguistic facts
observed； it is prescriptive if it lays down rules for grammatical correctness. ②Synchronic vs。 diachronic共时vs.历时
The study of language as its exists at a particular point in time is synchronic. ③Langue vs。 parole语言vs.言语
A distinction made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure（索绪尔1857—1913). Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language， or realization of langue.
④Competence vs. performance语言能力vs。语言运用
Competence is the speaker-listener’s knowledge of his language and performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations。
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 1。IPA：International Phonetic Association(国际语音学协会). 2。The theory of cardinal vowels
Cardinal vowels： A set of vowels established by Daniel Jones as fixed and unchanging reference points for the description of vowels in any language. By convention， the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight： 8个基本元音:
记住:p34, p35, p36三个表格。
3。 Phonemes and allophones
①Minimal pair最小对立体: Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound （one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning。 E.g。 the English words bit and bet are a minimal pair ②complimentary： 4。 Phonological process
Assimilation同化: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the
characteristics of neighboring sound。 Assimilation is often used synonymous with coarticulation。
① If a following sound influences a preceding sound， it is regressive
assimilation逆同化: e.g。 can， tan， tenth, ninth， sink, mink， gooseberry, raspberry, cupboard， five pence， have to， used to， pan cake， sun glass.
② if a preceding sound influences a following sound，it is Progressive
assimilation顺同化 e.g。 works, words， pears， writes， rides, eyes, laughed, loved, played.
5. The three variants of the plural form in English ： ①：the /s/ appears after voiceless sounds ②：the/z/ appears after voiced sounds ③：the/əz/ appears after sibilants
6。Stress
Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable。 ①:句子的重音。 ②:单词的重音
7.Tone.
English is not tone language but Chinese is 。
Chapter 3 1.Morpheme : is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning， a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.
2.Determiner ： 前位：all, both， half; double， twice, three times, etc; one—third, two-fifths， etc； what，
such， (a / an) 中位：：a(n)， the this, that, these， those my， your， his, her， our, Jim’s， my mother's some, any, no， every, each, either， neither， enough, what（ever）， which(ever）, whose， etc
后位：one, two, three, etc; first, second, third, etc； next， last， other, another， etc; many,
much, (a） few， （a） little, fewer， (the) fewest, less， (the) least， more, most; several， plenty of， a lot of， lots of， a
great / large / good number of, a great / good deal of, a large / small amount of; such
3.Word Formation
(1) Compound复合词 blackboard, bookworm, braindrain (2) Derivation衍生；派生 teacher, clockwise, uninstall
(3) Invention新创词语 nylon, condom， boycott， Xerox (4) Blending混成法 modem, BoBo， blog， e-book, e-zine， bit （binary + digit）
(5) Abbreviation缩写词；略语 fax, bus, flu (6) Acronym首字母缩写词 CEO，ATM，Back—formation逆构词法 edit, lase， enthuse
(7) Analogical creation类推造字 work、wrought、worked,
Slay、slew、slayed
(8) Borrowing借用；借词 typhoon, mahjong, mortgage， i. Loanwords借词 Loanblend混合借词 Chinatown 吉普车 ii. Loanshift 转移借词 bridge, artificial satellite， iii. Loan translation翻译借词
Chapter 4 1.Syntactic Relations ①Positional Relation：
Positional relation, or word order， refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
②Relation of substitutability:替代关系
Whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same。
③ Relation of co—occurrence: 同现关系
Words of different sets of clauses may permit, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence.
2.Immediate Constitute 直接成分分析法
N： 名词 V:动词 adj: 形容词 adv: 副词 det：限定词 part： 助词 Prep: 介词 aux: 情态动词
NP: 名词短语 VP：动词短语 PP:介词短语 AP: 形容词短语 C/S 从句，句子
3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions ①Endocentric: 向心结构
Usually NP, VP， AP belong to endocentric tupes because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head。
Coordination and Subordination belong to Endocentric. ②Exocentric: 离心结构
There is no definable ”centre\" or ”head” inside the group. Usually includes basic sentence ,PP, Predicate （V+O）construction, and connective construction( be+complement）.
4.Recursiveness ： 递归性
Embedding:嵌入式
Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination。 The 3 basic types ： complement ， adjunct （ or adverbial） and relative clauses。
Chapter 5 1.Meaning ：
Representative list of the main definitions which reputable students of meaning have favored。 记P94表格。
2.The Referential Theory： 指称论
concept
3.Sense relations
①Synonymy 同义关系 Synonym:同义词 分为完全同义词和部分同义词
②Antonymy 反义关系 Antonym: 反义词
i： Gradable antonymy : good—bad， long—short ii： Complementary antonymy ：alive — dead iii: Converse antonymy： buy—sell, borrow- give ③Hyponymy 上下义关系： 一种意义包含的关系 上义词: superodinate 下义词： Hyponyms
4.Componential Analysis: 成分分析 P103 出判断题
Entailment：包含关系 a=1，b=1 a=0,b=？ Presupposing: 前提关系 a=1，b=1 a=0,b=1 Inconsistent：矛盾 a=1，b=0 a=0,b=1
Chapter 8 1.Pragmatics = context + meaning
2.Speech Act Theory: John Langshaw Austin ①Performatives : 施为句 perform acts
特点：第一人称， 现在时, 直陈语气， 主动语态 ②Constatives : 叙事句
It is a descrition of what the speaker is doing at the same time of speaking. ( state a fact； report； describe) 3.A theory of the Illocutionary Act ① Locutionary : 言内行为 ② Illocutionary： 言外行为
③ Perlocutionary： 言后行为
4.The Cooperative Principle P 177 5.Characteristics of Implicature: ①Calculability： 可推测性
②Cancellability： 可撤销性（ 加一句话可撤销） ③Non-detachability： 不可分离性 ④Non-conventionality : 非常规性
Chapter9 P206 9。3。6 How to analyse poetry？
P215 9。4.4 How to analyse the language of fiction？ P221 9。3。3 How to analyse Dramatic texts?
Chapter10 1.CAI： Computer-assisted instruction 计算机辅助教学 CAL： Computer-assisted Learning 计算机辅助学习
CALL:Computer-assisted Language learning 计算机辅助语言学习
Chapter 11 1.Contrastive Analysis （ CA) P270—271
2.Error Analysis （EA）
Mistake： 具备competence ,但没有performance Error： 没有competence
Chapter12 1. The Prague School
The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonogy. 代表人物: Trubetskoy
Functional sentence perspective （FSP） 功能句子观
The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole。
2.The London School
B。 Malinowski， J.R。 Firth， M。A。K. Halliday all stress the importance of context of situation and the system aspects of language。 Thus， London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.
Malinowski’s theories： Meaning is not something that exists in sounds, but something that exists in the relations of sounds and their environment. Firth's theories： Language is a social process。 Meaning is use, the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts （ P285 第二段) Halliday and Systemic—Functional Grammar
Halliday’s SF is a sociological oriented functional linguistic approach which can be applied to language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis， stylistics, and machine translation.
①:Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network， or meaning potential
②：Functional Grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction。
3.12。4 American Structuralism ①Early period: Boas and Sapir
the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, Sapir defines language as “a purely human and non—instinctive method of communicating ideas， emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols”。
②Bloomfield’s theory
Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus—response reinforcement”, and the adult’s use of language is also a process of Stimulus-Response。
③Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics
Z. Harris， C。 Hockett, G. Trager， use the computer to carry out discovery procedures, Harris’s theory is circular, depending heavily on meaning， K. Pike, Tagmemics, everything in the world is hierarchical.
4.Transformational—Generative Grammar 由Chomsky 提出
①The Innateness Hypothesis
Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acqusition Divice( LAD） ②Generative Grammer
A system of rules that in some explicit and well —defined way assigns atructural descriptions to sentences. ③The Classical Theory：
Chomsky puts forward 3 kinds of grammar： finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar， and transformational grammar
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