英语语言学复习资料

英语语言学复习资料 一：名词解释

1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication.

2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.

4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic munication led to the establishment of phonetics.

5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in munication.

6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and bined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.

7. Syntax(句法学) then the bination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.

8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.

9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it bees another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.

10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones.

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11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.

12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.

13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.

14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.

15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only. 16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.

17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them.

19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.

20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.

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21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone. 22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.

23. Category(畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb. 24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. 二：简答题

1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)

Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.

2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)

Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific.

3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)

Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)

Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic munication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any

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language is always “invented〞 by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday munication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised〞 record of speech.

5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)

1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.

6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.

Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.

7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard〞 behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)

Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空

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限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统.

9. petence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？)

petence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him petence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官)

Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose. 11. Word-level categories(决定词畴的三个标准)

To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. 三：问题答复

1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规那么)

sequential rules(序列规那么)；assimilation rule (同化规那么) ；deletion rule(省略规那么)。

2. Suprasegmental features(超音段特征) stress(重音)；tone(声调)；intonation(语调)。

3. Classification of English speech sounds(英语语音分类)

The classification will divide the speech sounds in English into 20 vowels and28 consonants.

4. Phrase categories and their structures (短语的畴和类型)

noun phrase(NP), verb phrase(VP), adjective phrase(AP), prepositional phrase(PP). 5. Morphological rules of word formation(形态学的规那么)

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The ways words are formed are called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes bine to form words.

Some of the morphological rules can be used quite freely to form new words. They are productive morphological rules.

Another way to form new words are pound words, is by stringing words together.

1.1. What is language?

“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book〞) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books〞: “book〞 in English, “livre〞 in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check〞 in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new〞. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human〞 in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.

1.2. What are design features of language?

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“Design features〞 here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal munication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability

1.3. What is arbitrariness?

By “arbitrariness〞, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang〞, “crash〞, “roar〞, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some pounds (words pounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type〞 and “write〞 are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer〞 is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness〞 is a matter of degree.

1.4.What is duality?

Linguists refer “duality〞 (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of binations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which bine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the

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other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal munication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.

1.5.What is productivity?

Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon〞, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity〞 (by N.Chomsky).

1.6.What is displacement?

“Displacement〞, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or

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something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement〞, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.

1.7.What is cultural transmission?

This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device〞, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue〞 when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.

1.8.What is interchangeability?

(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.〞 Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other

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words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social munication possible and acceptable.

(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking〞 and which listening.

1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?

First of all, human language has six “design features〞 which animal munication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that pares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).

Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language〞, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child〞in I.7)

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1.10.What functions does language have?

Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of munication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions〞: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).

1. 11What is the phatic function?

The “phatic function〞 refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and ments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?〞 “Fine, thanks.〞) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello〞 to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi〞, you ruin your friendship.

1.12. What is the directive function?

The “directive function〞 means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result

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when you finish.〞 Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory〞(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!〞

1.13.What is the informative function?

Language serves an “informational function〞 when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle〞(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality〞, when he is informing at all.

1.14.What is the interrogative function?

When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function〞. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory〞, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.〞 This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.

1.15.What is the expressive function?

The “expressive function〞 is the use of language to reveal something about the

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feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!〞 “My God!〞 Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay〞 can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.

1.16.What is the evocative function?

The “evocative function〞 is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain modities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.

1.17.What is the per formative function?

This means people speak to “do things〞 or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK〞, which means more than speech, and more than an average

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social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).

1.18.What is linguistics?

“Linguistics〞 is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of munication in their societies or munities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)

1.19.What makes linguistics a science?

Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness

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means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the plicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone〞 unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.

1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.

1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?

The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE〞, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).

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1.22.What is speech and what is writing?

(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.

(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.

(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.

1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? A linguistic study is “descriptive〞 if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive〞 if it tries to lay down rules for “correct〞 language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many

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early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high〞 (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, inplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.

1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?

F. De Saussure refers “langue〞to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity and refers “parole〞 to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.

1.25.What is the difference between petence and performance?

(1) According to N. Chomsky, “petence〞 is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance〞 is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand

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an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s petence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed petence.

(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study petence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.

(3) Chomsky’s petence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a munity, while petence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.

1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?

M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior〞) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).

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1.27.In what way do language, petence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?

Langue, petence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; petence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. petence means “knowing〞, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing〞 or “performing actions〞. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.

1.28.What is phonetics?

“Phonetics〞 is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as

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mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.

1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?

The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.

1.30.What is place of articulation?

It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].

Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar〞.

1.31.What is the manner of articulation?

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The “manner of articulation〞 literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].

1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?

Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].

1.33.What is IPA? When did it e into being ?

The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet〞, is a promise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.

1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?

In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow〞 and “broad〞 transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic〞. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.

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1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (1) “Phonology〞 is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, plementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.

(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent〞, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.

1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?

(1) A “phone〞 is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics〞. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme〞 is a

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phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].

(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones〞, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.

1.37.What are minimal pairs?

When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair〞, e.g., “pill〞 and “bill〞, “pill〞 and “till〞, “till〞 and “dill〞, “till〞 and “kill〞, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).

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1.38.What is free variation?

If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation〞. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.

1.39.What is plementary distribution?

When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “plementary distribution〞. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in plementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in plementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please〞, “butler〞, “clear〞, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel〞, “help〞, “middle〞, etc.

1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?

(1) The “assimilation rule〞 assimilates one segment to another by “copying〞 a

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feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar) input-[‘imput](bilabial)

The “deletion rule〞 tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g〞 is mute in “sign〞, “design〞 and “paradigm〞, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature〞, “designation〞 and “paradigmatic〞. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).

1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?

“Suprasegmental phonology〞 refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.

Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features〞, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation〞. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and

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intonation.

1.42.What is morphology?

“Morphology〞 is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.

1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?

“Inflection〞 is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.

1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?

(1) The “morpheme〞 is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word “boxes〞, for example, has two morphemes: “box〞 and “-es〞, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don’t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.

(2) Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as “dog〞, “cat〞, etc. The variants of the

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plurality “-s〞 make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.

1.45.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?

A “free morpheme〞 is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed〞, “tree〞 ,etc. A “bound morpheme〞 is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s〞 in “beds〞 , “-al〞 in “national〞 and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either pounds (bination of two or more free morphemes )or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).

1.46.What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?

A “root〞 is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root〞 is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism〞 is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme “nation〞 as its root when “ inter-〞, “-al〞 and “-ism〞 are taken away.

A “stem〞 is any morpheme or bination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends〞 , “friend〞 is both the root and the stem, but in the word “friendships〞, “friendships〞 is its stem, “friend〞 is its root. Some words (i. e., pounds ) have more than one root ,e. g., “mailman〞 , “girlfriend〞 ,ect.

An “affix〞 is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a

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language, and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e. g. , “mini-〞, “un-〞, ect.(prefix); “-ise〞, “-tion〞, ect.(suffix). 1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes?

In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open –class words〞, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.

1.48.What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?

“Lexicon〞, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. “Word〞 is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even impossible, to define “word〞 linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of “word〞, none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1)a physically definable unit ,e. g.,[it iz ‘w ](phonological), “It is wonder〞 (orthographic); (2) the mon factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the mon factor of “checks〞, “checked〞, “checking 〞, etc.); (3) a grammatical unit(look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence).

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According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (pare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield ). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words(e. g.,-mats, seldom-?); (2) grammatical and lexical words(e. g. to, in ,etc., and table, chair, ect. By “lexical words〞 we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words(see I.47).

In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word〞 ,the term “lexeme〞 is postulated as the abtract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts. For example, “write〞 is the lexeme of the following words: “write〞, “write〞, “wrote〞, “writing〞, and “written.〞

“Vocabulary〞 usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary〞 is also used to mean word list or glossary. 1.49.What is collocation?

“Collocation〞 is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read〞 a “book〞; “correct〞 can narrowly occur with “book〞 which is supposed to have faults, but

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no one can “read〞 a “mistake〞 because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.

1. segregation [,segri'geiʃən] n. 隔离，别离；种族隔离 2. institutional [,insti'tju:ʃənəl] adj. 制度的；制度上的；学会的 3. external [ik'stə:nəl]

adj. 外部的；外表的；[药] 外用的；外国的；外面的 n. 外部；外观；外面 4. tend [tend]

vi. 趋向，倾向；照料，照顾 vt. 照料，照管 5. participants []

n. 参与者〔participant的复数形式〕 6. pedagogical [pedə'gɔdʒikəl] adj. 教育学的；教学法的 7. elaboration [i,læbə'reiʃən] n. 苦心经营，精巧；详细阐述 8. auxiliary [ɔ:g'ziljəri]

n. 助动词；辅助者，辅助物；附属机构 adj. 辅助的；副的；附加的 9. thereby [,ðεə'bai, 'ðεəbai]

adv. 从而，因此；在那附近；在那方面 10. hypothesize [hai'pɔθisaiz]

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vt. 假设，假定 vi. 假设，假定 11. directive [di'rektiv, dai-]

n. 指示；指令 adj. 指导的；管理的 12. generation [,dʒenə'reiʃən] n. 一代；产生；一代人；生殖 13. substantial [səb'stænʃəl]

adj. 大量的；实质的；容充实的 n. 本质；重要材料 14. alternate [ɔ:l'tə:nət, 'ɔ:ltə-, 'ɔ:ltəneit]

vi. 交替；轮流 vt. 使交替；使轮流 adj. 交替的；轮流的 n. 替换物 15. distinction [dis'tiŋkʃən] n. 区别；差异；特性；荣誉、勋章 16. essential [i'senʃəl]

adj. 根本的；必要的；本质的；精华的 n. 本质；要素；要点；必需品 17. notion ['nəuʃən] n. 概念；见解；打算

18. differentiate [,difə'renʃieit] vi. 区分，区别 vt. 区分，区别 19. respectively [ri'spektivli] adv. 分别地；各自地，单独地 20. neutral ['nju:trəl]

adj. 中立的，中性的；中立国的；非彩色的 n. 中立国；中立者；非彩色；齿轮的空档

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21. exemplification [ig,zemplifi'keiʃən] n. 例；模

22. evolution [,i:və'lu:ʃən, ,ev-] n. 演变；进化论；进展 23. aspect ['æspekt]

n. 方面；方向；形势；外貌 24. native ['neitiv]

adj. 本国的；土著的；天然的；与生俱来的；天赋的 n. 本地人；土产；当地居民

25. masculine ['mæskjulin]

adj. 男性的；阳性的；男子气概的 n. 男性；阳性，阳性词 26. quality ['kwɔləti]

n. 质量，[统计] 品质；特性；才能 27. reinforcement [,ri:in'fɔ:smənt] n. 加固；增援；援军；加强 28. unique [ju:'ni:k]

adj. 独特的，稀罕的；[数] 唯一的，独一无二的 n. 独一无二的人或物 29. vastly ['va:stli] adv. 极；广；深远地 30. irrespective [,iri'spektiv] adj. 无关的；不考虑的；不顾的 31. perceive [pə'si:v]

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vt. 觉察，感觉；理解；认知 vi. 感到，感知；认识到 32. ignorance ['ignərəns] n. 无知，愚昧；不知，不懂 33. interwine [] v. 缠绕

34. concerned [kən'sə:nd]

adj. 有关的；关心的 v. 关心〔concern的过去时和过去分词〕；与…有关 35. inquiry [in'kwaiəri] n. 探究；调查；质询 36. recognize ['rekəgnaiz]

vt. 认出，识别；成认 vi. 确认，成认；具结 37. subtlety ['sʌbtlti] n. 微妙；敏锐；精明

38. conversation [,kɔnvə'seiʃən] n. 交谈；会话；社交 39. stir [stə:]

n. 搅拌；轰动 vt. 搅拌；激起；惹起 vi. 搅动；传播；走动 40. misplaced [,mɪs'plest]

adj. 错位的；寄托错的 v. 错放〔misplace的过去式〕 41. allophone ['æləufəun] n. 音位变体

42. abbreviation [ə,bri:vi'eiʃən]

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n. 缩写；缩写词 43. nerve [nə:v]

n. 神经；勇气；[植] 叶脉 vt. 鼓起勇气 44. essentially [i'senʃəli] adv. 本质上；本来 45. register ['redʒistə]

vt. 登记；注册；记录；挂号邮寄；把…挂号；正式提出 vi. 登记；注册；挂号 n. 登记；注册；记录；存放器；登记簿 46. accurately ['ækjərɪtli] adv. 准确地，准确地 47. sequence ['si:kwəns]

n. [数][计] 序列；顺序；续发事件 vt. 按顺序排好 48. introduced []

v. 介绍；引进〔introduce的过去分词〕 adj. 引进的；引种的 49. mediation [,mi:di'eiʃən] n. 调解；仲裁；调停 50. interact [,intə'rækt]

vt. 互相影响；互相作用 vi. 互相影响；互相作用 n. 幕间剧；幕间休息 51. gyrus ['dʒaɪrəs]

n. [解剖] 脑回〔形成大脑半球的组织〕；回转 52. coincide [,kəuin'said] vi. 一致，符合；同时发生

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53. gratitude ['grætitju:d] n. 感的心情

54. rehearsal [ri'hə:səl]

n. 排演；预演；练习；训练；表达 55. precisely [pri'saisli] adv. 准确地；恰恰 56. petent ['kɔmpitənt]

adj. 胜任的；有能力的；能干的；足够的 57. paradigm ['pærədim] n. 例；词形变化表 58. resultative []

adj. 表示结果的 n. 结果短语 59. entity ['entəti] n. 实体；存在；本质 60. formulated [] 按配方制造

61. atypical [, ei'tipikəl,-ik] adj. 非典型的；不合规那么的 62. qualification [,kwɔlifi'keiʃən] n. 资格；条件；限制；赋予资格 63. diverge [dai'və:dʒ, di-]

vi. 分歧；偏离；分叉；离题 vt. 使偏离；使分叉

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64. estimated ['estimetid] adj. 估计的；预计的；估算的 65. priority [prai'ɔrəti]

n. 优先；优先权；[数] 优先次序；优先考虑的事 66. position [,kɔmpə'ziʃən] n. 作文，作曲；[材] 构成；合成物 67. perspective [pə'spektiv]

n. 观点；远景；透视图 adj. 透视的 68. devote [di'vəut] vt. 致力于；奉献

69. materialize [mə'tiəriəlaiz]

vt. 使具体化，使有形；使突然出现；使重物质而轻精神 vi. 实现，成形；突然出现

70. seemingly ['si:miŋli] adv. 看来似乎；外表上看来 71. spectrum ['spektrəm] n. 光谱；频谱；围；余象 72. label ['leibl]

vt. 标注；贴标签于 n. 标签；商标；签条 73. display [,dis'plei]

n. 显示；炫耀 vt. 显示；表现；列 vi. [动] 作炫耀行为 adj. 展览的；列用的 74. code [kəud]

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n. 代码，密码；编码；法典 vt. 编码；制成法典 vi. 指定遗传密码 75. criticism ['krɪtɪsɪzəm] n. 批评；考证；苛求 76. ghetto ['getəu]

n. 犹太人区；贫民区 vt. 使集中居住 77. utter ['ʌtə]

vt. 发出，表达；发射 adj. 完全的；彻底的；无条件的 78. rural ['ruərəl]

adj. 农村的，乡下的；田园的，有乡村风味的 79. virtually ['və:tʃuəli] adv. 事实上，几乎；实质上 80. stutter ['stʌtə]

vi. 结结巴巴地说话 n. 口吃，结巴 vt. 结结巴巴地说出 81. disorder [dis'ɔ:də]

n. 混乱；骚乱 vt. 使失调；扰乱 82. deficiency [di'fiʃənsi]

n. 缺陷，缺点；缺乏；缺乏的数额 83. contradict [kɒntrə'dɪkt]

vt. 反驳；否认；与…矛盾；与…抵触 vi. 反驳；否认；发生矛盾 84. distinguish [dis'tiŋgwiʃ]

vt. 区分；区分；使出色，使表现突出 vi. 区别，区分；区分 85. restored [ri'stɔ:d]

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adj. 精力充分的；精力恢复的 v. 修复〔restore的过去式〕；恢复安康 86. dysgraphia []

n. [医] 书写困难；书写障碍 87. measure ['meʒə]

n. 测量；措施；程度；尺寸 vt. 测量；估量；权衡 vi. 测量；估量 88. aristocrat [] n. 贵族

89. indication [,indi'keiʃən] n. 指示，指出；迹象；象征 90. contrastive [] adj. 比照的

91. evidence ['evidəns]

n. 证据，证明；迹象；明显 vt. 证明 92. erroneously [] adv. 错误地；不正确 93. stimulus ['stimjuləs] n. 刺激；鼓励；刺激物 94. frozen ['frəuzn]

adj. 冻结的；冷酷的 v. 结冰〔freeze的过去分词〕；凝固；变得刻板 95. perceived []

v. 感知；认为〔perceive的过去分词〕；领会 adj. 感知到的；感观的 96. stimuli ['stimjulai]

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n. 刺激；剌激物；促进因素〔stimulus的复数〕 97. uvula ['ju:vjulə]

n. [解剖] 悬雍垂；[解剖] 小舌 98. negation [ni'geiʃən] n. 否认，否认；拒绝 99. wireless ['waiəlis]

adj. 无线的；无线电的 n. 无线电 vt. 用无线电报与…联系；用无线电报发送 vi. 打无线电报；打无线 100. gradual ['grædʒuəl]

adj. 逐渐的；平缓的 n. 弥撒升阶圣歌集 101. sequential [si'kwenʃəl] adj. 连续的；相继的；有顺序的 102. controversy ['kɔntrə,və:si] n. 争论；论战；辩论 103. especially [i'speʃəli] adv. 特别；尤其；格外

104. generalization [,dʒenərəlai'zeiʃən, -li'z-] n. 概括；普遍化；一般化 105. predominant [,pri'dɔminənt]

adj. 主要的；卓越的；支配的；有力的；有影响的 106. emphasize ['emfəsaiz] vt. 强调，着重

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107. trauma ['trɔ:mə; 'trau-]

n. [外科] 创伤〔由心理创伤造成精神上的异常〕；外伤 108. subsequence ['sʌbsikwəns] n. 后继；随后发生的事情 109. fissure ['fɪʃə]

vi. 裂开；分裂 n. 裂缝；裂沟〔尤指岩石上的〕 vt. 裂开；分裂 110. assertion [ə'sə:ʃən] n. 断言，声明；主，要求；坚持 111. theoretical [,θiə'retikəl, ,θi:ə-] adj. 理论的；理论上的；假设的；推理的

112. transformation [,trænsfə'meiʃən, ,trænz-, trɑ:n-] n. [遗] 转化；转换；改革；变形 113. syllable ['siləbl]

n. 音节 vt. 划分音节 vi. 按音节发音；讲话 114. authorize ['ɔ:θəraiz]

vt. 批准，认可；授权给；委托代替 115. entire [in'taiə]

adj. 全部的，整个的；全体的 116. intimacy ['intiməsi]

n. 性行为；亲密；亲昵行为；隐私 117. categories []

n. 类别〔category的复数〕；分类

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118. prominent ['prɔminənt]

adj. 突出的，显著的；出色的；卓越的 119. peculiar [pi'kju:ljə]

adj. 特殊的；独特的；奇怪的；罕见的 n. 特权；特有财产 120. govern ['gʌv(ə)n]

vt. 管理；支配；统治；控制 vi. 居支配地位；进展统治 121. clues []

n. 线索，蛛丝马迹〔clue的复数〕 v. 提示〔clue的第三人称单数〕；暗示 122. involve [in'vɔlv]

vt. 包含；牵涉；使陷于；潜心于 123. convey [kən'vei] vt. 传达；运输；让与 124. obvious ['ɔbviəs]

adj. 明显的；显著的；平淡无奇的 125. norm [nɔ:m]

n. 规，基准；定额，分配之工作量 126. assault [ə'sɔ:lt]

n. 攻击；袭击 vt. 攻击；袭击 vi. 袭击；动武 127. voluntary ['vɒlənt(ə)rɪ]

adj. 自愿的；志愿的；自发的；成心的 n. 志愿者；自愿行动 128. capability [,keipə'biləti] n. 才能，能力；性能，容量

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129. isolate ['aɪsəleɪt]

vt. 使隔离；使孤立；使绝缘 n. [生物] 隔离种群 vi. 隔离；孤立 adj. 隔离的；孤立的

130. substituting ['sʌbstitju:tiŋ]

n. 取代；代入 v. 代替，取代〔substitute的现在分词形式〕 131. occipital [ɒk'sɪpɪtəl] adj. 枕骨的，枕部的 n. 枕骨 132. identify [ai'dentifai]

vt. 确定；识别；使参与；把…看成一样 vi. 确定；认同；一致 133. privacy ['praivəsi, 'pri-, 'prai-] n. 隐私；秘密；隐居；隐居处 134. embody [im'bɔdi] vt. 表达，使具体化；具体表达 135. dominant ['dɔminənt]

adj. 显性的；占优势的；支配的，统治的 n. 显性 136. distribution [,distri'bju:ʃən] n. 分布；分配

137. inadequacy [in'ædikwəsi] n. 不适当，不充分；不完全；不十分 138. semivowel []

n. 半元音〔如w，j等〕；半元音字〔如 y，ng等〕 139. criterion [krai'tiəriən]

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n. 〔批评判断的〕标准；准那么；规；准据 140. category ['kætigəri] n. 种类，分类；[数] 畴 141. backcloth [] n. 背景幕

142. explicitly [ik'splisitli] adv. 明确地；明白地 143. proof [pru:f]

n. 证明；证据；校样；考验；验证；试验 adj. 防…的；不能透入的；证明用的；耐…的 vt. 试验；校对；使不被穿透 144. intrinsically [in'trinsikəli] adv. 本质地；在地；固有地 145. fiber ['faibə]

n. 纤维；光纤〔等于fibre〕 146. express [ik'spres]

vt. 表达；快递 adj. 明确的；迅速的；专门的 n. 快车，快递，专使；捷运公司 147. acquisition [,ækwi'ziʃən] n. 获得物，获得

148. analogous [ə'næləgəs] adj. 类似的；[昆] 同功的；可比较的 149. amytal ['æmitæl] n. [药] 阿米妥；异戊巴比妥

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150. bilingualism [] n. 能用两种语言 151. hierarchy ['haiə,rɑ:ki] n. 层级；等级制度

152. construction [kən'strʌkʃən] n. 建立；建筑物；解释；造句 153. note [nəut]

n. 笔记；音符；票据；注解；纸币；便笺；照会；调子 vt. 注意；记录；注解 154. portion ['pɔːʃ(ə)n]

n. 局部；一份；命运 vt. 分配；给…嫁妆 155. collectional []

collection的变形收集，采集；收取收集品，收藏品；(图书馆)藏书，馆藏 (教堂礼拜时的)捐款，募捐，施舍物；募集的钱聚集；大量，大堆 [用复数][英国英语] 时装展览；展示的时装 (马的)受衔姿势，正姿势 156. criteria [krai'tiəriə]

n. 标准，条件〔criterion的复数〕 157. focuses []

n. 重点〔focuse的复数〕；焦点 v. 集中〔focus的三单形式〕；使聚焦；调节焦距 158. ethical ['eθɪk(ə)l]

adj. 伦理的；道德的；凭处方出售的 n. 处方药 159. subconscious [,sʌb'kɔnʃəs]

adj. 潜意识的；下意识的 n. 潜在意识；下意识心理活动

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160. amenity [ə'mi:nəti, ə'men-] n. 舒适；礼仪；愉快；便利设施 161. enhancement [in'ha:nsmənt] n. 增加；放大 162. reserved [ri'zə:vd]

adj. 保存的，预订的；沉默的，冷淡的；包租的 v. 保存〔reserve的过去分词〕 163. omission [əu'miʃən] n. 疏忽，遗漏；省略；冗长 164. focu [] 焦点一种奇点 165. clue [klu:]

n. 线索；〔故事等的〕情节 vt. 为…提供线索；为…提供情况 166. efficiency [i'fiʃənsi] n. 效率；效能；成效

167. strengthen ['streŋθən, 'streŋkθən] vt. 加强；稳固 vi. 变强；变坚硬 168. literally ['litərəli] adv. 照字面地；逐字地 169. apply [ə'plai]

vt. 申请；涂，敷；应用 vi. 申请；涂，敷；适用；请求 170. constrain [kən'strein] vt. 驱使；强迫；束缚

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171. formulate ['fɔ:mjuleit]

vt. 规划；用公式表示；明确地表达 172. segment ['segmənt, seg'ment, 'segment] vi. 分割 n. 段；局部 vt. 分割 173. variation [,vεəri'eiʃən] n. 变化；[生物] 变异，变种 174. proverb ['prɔvə:b]

n. 谚语，格言；众所周知的人或事 175. axial ['æksɪəl] adj. 轴的；轴向的 176. rare [rεə]

adj. 稀有的；半熟的；稀薄的 adv. 非常；极其 vi. 用后腿站起；渴望 177. request [ri'kwest]

n. 请求；需要 vt. 要求，请求 178. presumption [pri'zʌmpʃən, pri:-] n. 放肆，傲慢；推测 179. argument ['ɑ:gjumənt] n. 论证；论据；争吵；容提要 180. restriction [ri'strikʃən] n. 限制；约束；束缚 181. designated ['dezig,neitid] adj. 指定的；特指的

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182. connotative ['kɔnəuteitiv] adj. 涵的；隐含的；含蓄的 183. mere [miə]

adj. 仅仅的；只不过的 n. 小湖；池塘 184. scale [skeil]

n. 规模；比例；鳞；刻度；天平；数值围 vi. 衡量；攀登；剥落；生水垢 vt. 测量；攀登；刮鳞；依比例决定 185. illocutionary []

adj. [语言学]言外行为的；言之行言语行为的 186. expansion [ik'spænʃən] n. 膨胀；阐述；扩物

187. homograph ['hɔməugrɑ:f, -græf] n. 同形异义字

188. randomly ['rændəmli]

adv. 随便地，任意地；无目的，胡乱地；未加方案地 189. heyday ['heidei]

n. 全盛期 int. 嘿！〔表喜悦或惊奇等〕 190. articulation [ɑ:,tikju'leiʃən] n. 关节；接合；清晰发音 191. automatically [,ɔtə'mætɪkli]

adv. 自动地；机械地；无意识地 adj. 不经思索的 192. ideology [,aidi'ɔlədʒi, ,idi-]

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n. 意识形态；思想意识；观念学 193. utterance []

n. 表达；说话；说话方式 194. develop [di'veləp]

vt. 开发；进步；使成长；使显影 vi. 发育；生长；进化；显露 195. denial [di'naiəl] n. 否认；拒绝；节制；背弃 196. derivational [,deri'veiʃənəl] adj. 得来的；诱导的

197. conjure ['kʌndʒə, 'kɔn-]

vt. 想象；念咒召唤；用魔法变出 vi. 以念咒召唤神灵；施魔法，变魔术 198. lexicon ['leksikən] n. 词典，辞典

199. attainment [ə'teinmənt] n. 到达；成就；学识 200. modify ['mɔdifai] vt. 修改，修饰；更改 vi. 修改 201. hint [hint]

n. 暗示；线索 vt. 暗示；示意 vi. 示意 202. instrument ['instrumənt, 'instrə-, -ment] n. 仪器；工具；乐器；手段；器械 203. illuminate [i'lju:mineit]

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vt. 说明，说明；照亮；使灿烂；用灯装饰 vi. 照亮 204. infancy ['infənsi] n. 初期；婴儿期；幼年 205. naked ['neikid]

adj. 裸体的；无装饰的；无证据的；直率的 206. identification [ai,dentifi'keiʃən] n. 鉴定，识别；认同；明 207. scientific [,saiən'tifik] adj. 科学的，系统的

208. preoccupation [pri:,ɔkju'peiʃən]

n. 全神贯注，入神；当务之急；关注的事物；抢先占据；成见 209. stem [stem]

n. 干；茎；船首；血统 vt. 阻止；除去…的茎；给…装柄 vi. 阻止；起源于某事物；逆行

210. consistent [kən'sistənt] adj. 始终如一的，一致的；坚持的 211. prehension [,kɔmpri'henʃən] n. 理解；包含 212. technique [tek'ni:k] n. 技巧，技术；手法 213. maintain [mein'tein]

vt. 维持；继续；维修；主；供养

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214. parietal [pə'raɪɪt(ə)l]

adj. [解剖] 腔壁的；颅顶骨的；〔美〕学院生活的 n. 顶骨，头顶骨 215. ambiguity [,æmbi'gju:iti]

n. 模糊；不明确；暧昧；模棱两可的话 216. omitted [əu'mitid]

adj. 省略了的；省去的 v. 遗漏，省略〔omit的过去分词〕 217. neuro [] n. 神经

218. evident ['evidənt] adj. 明显的；明白的

219. topography [tə'pɒgrəfɪ] n. 地势；地形学；地志 220. formerly ['fɔ:məli] adv. 以前；原来 221. illegality [,ili:'gæləti] n. ；[法] 非法行为；犯规 222. prehensive [,kɔmpri'hensiv]

adj. 综合的；广泛的；有理解力的 n. 综合学校；专业综合测验 223. bundle ['bʌnd(ə)l] n. 束；捆 vt. 捆 vi. 匆忙离开 224. quantity ['kwɔntəti] n. 量，数量；大量；总量

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225. derive [di'raiv] vt. 源于；得自 vi. 起源 226. entirely [in'taiəli] adv. 完全地，彻底地 227. template ['templit] n. 模板，样板

228. integrate ['intigreit, 'intigrit, -greit]

vt. 使…完整；使…成整体；求…的积分；表示…的总和 vi. 求积分；取消隔离；成为一体 adj. 整合的；完全的 n. 一体化；集成体 229. static ['stætɪk]

adj. 静态的；静电的；静力的 n. 静电；静电干扰 230. scanning ['skæniŋ]

n. 扫描；搜索，观测；扫掠 adj. 扫描的；观测的；搜索的；扫掠的 v. 扫描〔scan的现在分词〕；浏览

231. dramatical [drə'mætik,-kəl] adj. 剧烈的，戏剧的 232. adequate ['ædikwit] adj. 充足的；适当的；胜任的 233. attendance [ə'tendəns] n. 出席；到场；出席人数 234. absurd [əb'sə:d]

adj. 荒唐的；可笑的 n. 荒唐；荒唐作品

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235. intermediate [,intə'mi:djət, -dieit]

vi. 起媒介作用 adj. 中间的，中级的 n. [化学] 中间物；媒介 236. endowment [in'daumənt] n. 捐赠；捐助；捐款；天资 237. prerequisite ['pri:'rekwizit] n. 先决条件 adj. 首要必备的 238. conscious ['kɔnʃəs]

adj. 意识到的；成心的；神志清醒的 239. articulatory [ɑ:'tikjulətəri] adj. 关节的；分节的；发音清晰的 240. interactionist []

interactionism的变形【行为学】互相作用说；交相感应说 241. monolingual []

adj. 单语的；仅用一种语言的；仅懂一种语言的 n. 只用一种语言的人 242. press [pres]

vt. 压；按；逼迫；紧抱 vi. 压；逼；重压 n. 压；按；新闻；；[印刷] 印刷机 243. plex ['kɔmpleks]

adj. 复杂的；合成的 n. 复合体；综合设施 244. coordination [kəu,ɔ:di'neiʃən] n. 协调，调和；对等，同等 245. superimpose [,sju:pərim'pəuz] vt. 添加；重叠；附加；安装

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246. substance ['sʌbstəns] n. 物质；实质；资产；主旨 247. designed [di'zaind]

adj. 有方案的，原意的；成心的 v. 设计；方案〔design的过去分词〕 248. significant [sig'nifikənt]

adj. 重大的；有效的；有意义的；值得注意的；意味深长的 n. 象征；有意义的事物

249. relevance ['relivəns] n. 关联；适当；中肯 250. definitely ['definitli]

adv. 清楚地，当然；明确地，肯定地 251. sentimental [,senti'mentəl] adj. 感伤的；感情脆弱的 252. paralysis [pə'rælɪsɪs] n. 麻痹；无力；停顿 253. coinage ['kɔinidʒ]

n. 造币；[金融] 货币制度；新造的字及其语等 254. singular ['siŋgjulə]

adj. 单数的；单一的；非凡的；异常的 n. 单数 255. alter ['ɔ:ltə]

vt. 改变，更改 vi. 改变；修改 256. material [mə'tiəriəl]

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adj. 重要的；物质的，实质性的；肉体的 n. 材料，原料；物资；布料 257. exhibit [ig'zibit]

vt. 展览；显示；提出〔证据等〕 n. 展览品；证据；展示会 vi. 展出；开展览会

258. wrinkle ['rɪŋk(ə)l] n. 皱纹 vi. 起皱 vt. 使起皱纹 259. corpus ['kɔ:pəs] n. [计] 语料库；文集；本金 260. presence ['prezəns]

n. 存在；出席；参加；风度；仪态 261. equally ['i:kwəli]

adv. 同样地；相等地，平等地；公平地 262. cognition [kɔg'niʃən] n. 认识；知识；认识能力 263. elementary [,eli'mentəri] adj. 根本的；初级的；[化学] 元素的 264. reflect [ri'flekt]

vt. 反映；反射，照出；反省 vi. 反射，映现；深思 265. proportion [prəˈpɔːʃ(ə)n]

n. 比例；局部；面积；均衡 vt. 使成比例；使均衡；分摊 266. audibly ['ɔ:dəbli] adv. 可听见地

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267. auditory ['ɔ:ditəri]

n. 听众；礼堂 adj. 听觉的；耳朵的 268. stylistic [stai'listik]

adj. 体裁上的；格式上的；文体论的 269. presuppose []

vt. 假定；预料；以…为先决条件 270. emission [ɪ'mɪʃ(ə)n]

n. 〔光、热等的〕发射，散发；喷射；发行 271. audible ['ɔ:dəbl] adj. 听得见的

272. subsequently ['sʌbsikwəntli] adv. 随后，其后；后来 273. motherese [] n. 妈妈语

274. proclaim [prəu'kleim]

vt. 宣告，公布；声明；说明；赞扬 275. acoustic [ə'ku:stik]

adj. 声学的；音响的；听觉的 n. 原声乐器；不用电传音的乐器 276. ignorant ['ignərənt] adj. 无知的；愚昧的 277. aptitude ['æptitju:d] n. 天资；自然倾向；适宜

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278. formulation [,fɔ:mju'leiʃən] n. 设想，规划；公式化；简洁述 279. ply [kəm'plai]

vi. 遵守；顺从，遵从；容许 280. deplore [di'plɔ:]

vt. 谴责；悲悼；哀叹；对…深感遗憾 281. repetitive [ri'petətiv] adj. 重复的 282. mute [mjuːt]

adj. 哑的；沉默的；无声的 vt. 减弱……的声音；使……柔和 n. 哑巴；弱音器；闭锁音

283. preeminence [,pri:'eminəns, pri-] n. 卓越；出色

284. declaration [,deklə'reiʃən]

n. 〔纳税品等的〕申报；宣布；公告；申诉书 285. select [si'lekt]

vt. 挑选；选拔 adj. 精选的；挑选出来的；极好的 vi. 挑选 n. 被挑选者；精萃 286. explanation [,eksplə'neiʃən] n. 说明，解释；辩白

287. distinctness [dɪ'stɪŋktnɪs] n. 不同；明显；有特殊性 288. friction ['frikʃən]

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n. 摩擦，[力] 摩擦力 289. verifiable ['veri,faiəbl]

adj. 可证实的；能作证的；可检验的 290. preliminary [pri'liminəri]

n. 准备；预赛；初步措施 adj. 初步的；开场的；预备的 291. vary ['vεəri]

vi. 变化；变异；违反 vt. 改变；使多样化；变奏 292. render ['rendə]

vt. 致使；提出；实施；着色；以…回报 vi. 给予补偿 n. 打底；交纳；粉刷 293. modified ['mɔdifaid]

adj. 改进的，修改的；改进的 v. 修改；缓和〔modify的过去分词〕 294. whereas [hwεə'æz] conj. 然而；鉴于；反之 295. failure ['feiljə]

n. 失败；故障；失败者；破产 296. elusive [i'lju:siv,-səri]

adj. 难懂的；易忘的；逃避的；难捉摸的 297. summarize ['sʌməraiz] vt. 总结；概述 vi. 作总结；作概括 298. regulate ['regjuleit]

vt. 调节，规定；控制；校准；有系统的管理 299. attempt [ə'tempt]

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n. 企图，试图；攻击 vt. 企图，试图；尝试 300. assimilate [ə'simileit]

vt. 吸收；使同化；把…比作；使相似 vi. 吸收；同化 301. formality [fɔ:'mæliti] n. 礼节；拘谨；仪式；正式手续 302. stability [stə'biliti] n. 稳定性；坚决，恒心 303. figure out []

解决；算出；想出；理解；断定 304. angular ['æŋgjʊlə]

adj. [生物] 有角的；生硬的，笨拙的；瘦削的 305. autopsy ['ɔ:təpsi]

n. 验尸；[病理][特医] 尸体解剖；[病理][特医] 尸体剖检 306. dental ['dentəl]

adj. 牙科的；牙齿的，牙的 n. 齿音 307. sincerity [sin'serəti, -'siərəti] n. 真实，诚挚 308. postvocalic [] adj. 元音后面的 309. caretaker []

n. 看管者；看门人；守护者 adj. 临时代理的 310. performance [pə'fɔ:məns]

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n. 性能；绩效；表演；执行 311. arose [ə'rəuz]

vi. 出现〔arise的过去式〕；引发 312. formation [fɔ:'meiʃən] n. 形成；构造；编队 313. beneath [bɪ'niːθ] prep. 在…之下 adv. 在下方 314. transmit [trænz'mit, træns-, trɑ:n-]

vt. 传输；传播；发射；传达；遗传 vi. 传输；发射信号 315. regular ['regjulə]

adj. 定期的；有规律的；合格的；整齐的 n. 常客；正式队员；中坚分子 adv. 定期地；经常地

316. percentage [pə'sentidʒ] n. 百分比；百分率，百分数 317. thus [ðʌs]

adv. 因此；从而；这样；如此 conj. 因此n. 乳香 318. imperialism [] n. 帝国主义

319. coincidence [kəu'insidəns] n. 巧合；一致；同时发生

320. manipulation [mə,nipju'leiʃən] n. 操纵；操作；处理；篡改

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321. representative [,repri'zentətiv]

adj. 典型的，有代表性的；代议制的 n. 代表；典型；众议员 322. immediate [i'mi:diət] adj. 立即的；直接的；最接近的 323. subtract [səb'trækt] vt. 减去；扣掉

324. plication [,kɔmpli'keiʃən] n. 并发症；复杂；复杂化；混乱 325. originally [ə'ridʒənəli] adv. 最初，起初；本来 326. charge [tʃɑ:dʒ]

n. 费用；电荷；掌管；控告；命令；负载 vt. 使充电；使承当；指责；装载；对…索费；向…冲去 vi. 充电；控告；索价；向前冲；记在账上 327. regional ['ri:dʒənəl] adj. 地区的；局部的；整个地区的 328. sensory ['sens(ə)rɪ]

adj. 感觉的；知觉的；传递感觉的 329. designate ['dezigneit, 'dezignit, -neit]

vt. 指定；指派；标出；把…定名为 adj. 指定的；选定的 330. device [di'vais] n. 装置；策略；图案 331. usage ['ju:zidʒ]

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n. 使用；用法；惯例 332. clarity ['klærəti] n. 清楚，明晰；透明 333. actual ['æktʃuəl]

adj. 真实的，实际的；现行的，目前的 334. pretend [pri'tend, pri:-]

vt. 假装；假扮；伪称 vi. 假装；伪称 adj. 假装的 335. assign [ə'sain]

vt. 分配；指派；[计][数] 赋值 vi. 将财产过户〔尤指过户给债权人〕 336. surface ['sə:fis]

n. 外表；表层；外观 adj. 外表的，浅薄的 vi. 浮出水面 vt. 使浮出水面；使成平面

337. articulate [ɑ:'tikjulət, ɑ:'tikjuleit]

vt. 清晰地发〔音〕；明确有力地表达；用关节连接；使相互连贯 vi. 发音；清楚地讲话；用关节连接起来 adj. 发音清晰的；口才好的；有关节的 338. imply [im'plai] vt. 意味；暗示；隐含 339. mechanism ['mekənizəm]

n. 机制；原理，途径；进程；机械装置；技巧 340. beyond [bi'jɔnd]

prep. 超过；越过；那一边；在...较远的一边 adv. 在远处；在更远处 n. 远处 341. obscurity [əb'skjuriti]

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n. 朦胧；阴暗；晦涩；身份卑微；不清楚 342. labelled [leibəld]

adj. 贴上标签的 v. 贴上标签〔label的过去式〕 343. significance [sig'nifikəns] n. 意义；重要性；意思 344. drive [draiv]

vi. 开车；猛击；飞跑 vt. 推动，发动〔机器等〕；驾驶〔马车，汽车等〕；驱赶 n. 驱动器；驾车；[心理] 驱力，推进力；快车道 345. initiate [ɪ'nɪʃɪeɪt]

vt. 开场，创始；发起；使初步了解 n. 开场；新参加者，承受初步知识者 adj. 新参加的；承受初步知识的 346. focus ['fəukəs]

n. 焦点；中心；清晰；焦距 vt. 使集中；使聚焦 vi. 集中；聚焦；调节焦距 347. loyalty ['lɔiəlti] n. 忠诚；忠心；忠实 348. exchange [iks'tʃeindʒ]

n. 交换；交流；交易所；兑换 vt. 交换；交易；兑换vi. 交换；交易；兑换 349. exponent [ik'spəunənt]

n. [数] 指数；典型；说明者，说明物 adj. 说明的 350. random ['rændəm]

adj. [数] 随机的；任意的；胡乱的 n. 随意 adv. 胡乱地 351. participant [pɑ:'tisipənt]

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adj. 参与的；有关系的 n. 参与者；关系者 352. syndrome ['sɪndrəʊm]

n. [临床] 综合征；综合病症；并发病症；校验子；并发位 353. closure ['kləuʒə] n. 关闭；终止，完毕 vt. 使终止 354. suffice [sə'fais]

vt. 使满足；足够…用；合格 vi. 足够；有能力 355. appropriateness [] n. 适当；适合

356. emancipate [i'mænsipeit] vt. 解放；释放 357. range [reindʒ]

n. 围；幅度；排；山脉 vi. 平行，列为一行；延伸；漫游；射程到达 vt. 漫游；放牧；使并列；归类于；来回走动 358. plexity [kəm'pleksiti]

n. 复杂，复杂性；复杂错综的事物 359. constantly ['kɔnstəntli] adv. 不断地；时常地 360. permeate ['pə:mieit]

vt. 渗透，透过；弥漫 vi. 弥漫；透入；散布 361. copula ['kɔpjulə] n. 介体；接合部；连系动词

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362. block [blɒk]

n. 块；街区；大厦；障碍物 vt. 阻止；阻塞；限制 adj. 成批的，大块的；交通堵塞的

363. switch [switʃ]

vt. 转换；用鞭子等抽打 vi. 转换；抽打；[体]换防 n. 开关；转换；鞭子 364. retrieval [ri'tri:vəl] n. 检索；恢复；取回；拯救 365. remarkable [ri'mɑ:kəbl] adj. 卓越的；非凡的；值得注意的 366. circumstance ['sə:kəmstəns] n. 环境，情况；事件；境遇 367. dichotic [daɪ'kɒtɪk] adj. 二重听觉的 368. homonyms []

n. 同形同音异义词；同音异义词〔homonym的复数〕 369. capacity [kə'pæsəti]

n. 能力；容量；资格，地位；生产力 370. missive [] adj. 许诺的

371. artery ['ɑːtərɪ] n. 动脉；干道；主流 372. paraphrase ['pærəfreiz]

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n. 释义；改述；演释曲 vt. 改述 vi. 释义；意译 373. homonymy [] n. 同音异义

374. extreme [ik'stri:m]

adj. 极端的；极度的；偏激的；尽头的 n. 极端；末端；最大程度；极端的事物 375. principally ['prinsəpəli] adv. 主要地；大局部

376. prestigious [pre'stidʒəs, -'sti:-] adj. 有名望的；享有声望的 377. palatal ['pælətl] n. 上颚音 adj. 腭的；上颚的 378. process ['prəuses, 'prɔ-]

vt. 处理；加工 n. 过程，进展；方法，步骤；作用；程序；推移 vi. 列队前进 adj. 经过特殊加工〔或处理〕的 379. reptiles ['rɛptl]

n. 爬行动物〔reptile的复数〕；[脊椎] 爬行类；爬虫类 380. missionary ['miʃənəri] adj. 传教的；传教士的 n. 传教士 381. underwent [,ʌndə'went] v. 经历；遭遇〔undergo的过去式〕 382. injury ['indʒəri] n. 伤害，损害；受伤处

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383. concur [kən'kə:] vi. 同意；一致；互助 384. despite [di'spait]

prep. 尽管，不管 n. 轻视；憎恨；侮辱 385. cerebellum [,serɪ'beləm] n. [解剖] 小脑 386. elevate ['eliveit]

vt. 提升；举起；振奋情绪等；提升…的职位 387. unintelligible [,ʌnin'telidʒəbl] adj. 莫明其妙的；无法了解的 388. reflexive [ri'fleksiv]

n. 反身代词；反身动词 adj. 反身的；[物] 反射的 389. migrant ['maigrənt]

n. 留鸟；移居者；随季节迁移的民工 adj. 移居的；流浪的 390. equipped [i'kwipt]

v. 装备；预备〔equip的过去分词〕；整装 391. preserve [pri'zə:v]

vt. 保存；保护；维持；腌；禁猎 n. 保护区；禁猎地；加工成的食品 392. contrast [kən'trɑ:st, -'træst, 'kɔntrɑ:st, -træst]

vi. 比照；形成对照 vt. 使比照；使与…对照 n. 比照；差异；对照物 393. spinal ['spainəl]

adj. 脊髓的；脊柱的；针的；脊骨的；尖刺的 n. 脊椎麻醉

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394. prolixity [prəu'liksəti] n. 冗长；罗嗦 395. chief [tʃi:f]

n. 首领；酋长；主要局部 adj. 首席的；主要的；主任的 adv. 主要地；首要地 396. counterpart ['kauntə,pɑ:t] n. 副本；配对物；极相似的人或物 397. contradiction [,kɔntrə'dikʃən] n. 矛盾；否认；反驳 398. status ['steitəs, 'stæ-] n. 地位；状态；情形；重要身分 399. mark [mɑ:k]

n. 标志；马克；符号；痕迹 vi. 作记号 vt. 标志；做标记于；打分数 400. analogic []

adj. 模拟的；类推的；类似的 401. hyponymy []

n. 〔词义之间的〕下义关系；上下位关系 402. cognitive ['kɔgnitiv] adj. 认知的，认识的

403. telegraphy [ti'legrəfi, tə-] n. 电信；电报学

404. promulgation [,prɔməl'geiʃən, ,prəumʌl-] n. 公布；公布；宣传；普及

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405. match [mætʃ]

vt. 使比赛；使相配；敌得过，比得上；相配；与…竞争 vi. 比赛；匹配；相配，相称；相比 n. 比赛，竞赛；匹配；对手；火柴 406. lexical ['leksikəl]

adj. 词汇的；[语] 词典的；词典编纂的 407. windpipe ['windpaip] n. 气管；嗓门 408. senior ['si:njə]

adj. 高级的；年长的；地位较高的；年资较深的，资格较老的 n. 上司；较年长者；毕业班学生

409. exposure [ik'spəuʒə] n. 暴露；曝光；揭露；列 410. issue ['iʃju:, 'isju:]

n. 问题；流出；期号；发行物 vt. 发行，发布；发给；放出，排出 vi. 发行；流出；造成…结果；传下 411. slices []

n. 切片，切割〔slice的复数形式〕 v. 切成薄片〔slice的三单形式〕 412. state [steit]

n. 国家；州；情形 vt. 规定；声明；述 adj. 国家的；州的；正式的 413. attribute [ə'tribju:t, 'ætribju:t] n. 属性；特质 vt. 归属；把…归于 414. interfere [,intə'fiə]

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vi. 干预；阻碍；打搅 vt. 冲突；介入 415. plement ['kɔmplimənt]

n. 补语；余角；补足物 vt. 补足，补助 416. orderly ['ɔ:dəli]

adj. 有秩序的；整齐的；值班的 n. 勤务兵；传令兵；护理员 adv. 顺序地；依次地

417. adolescent [,ædəu'lesnt]

adj. 青春期的；未成熟的 n. 青少年 adolescent health 青少年安康 adj.青春期的；未成熟的 pubertal, hebetic n.[人类]青少年 youths, teener 418. dramatic [drə'mætik,-kəl] adj. 戏剧的；引人注目的；冲动人心的 419. ecology [i:'kɔlədʒi] n. 生态学；社会生态学 420. resort [ri'zɔ:t]

n. 凭借，手段；度假胜地；常去之地 vi. 求助，诉诸；常去；采取某手段或方法

421. intelligible [in'telidʒəbl]

adj. 可理解的；明了的；仅能用智力了解的 422. apparently [ə'pærəntli] adv. 显然地；似乎，外表上 423. judiciary []

n. 司法部；法官；司法制度adj. 司法的；法官的；法院的

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424. definition [,defi'niʃən] n. 定义；[物] 清晰度；讲解 425. degraded [di'greidid]

adj. 退化的；堕落的；被降级的 v. 分解〔degrade的过去分词〕；降低…的身份；削减

426. interdependence [,intədi'pendəns,-dənsi] n. 互相依赖

427. potential [pəu'tenʃəl]

n. 潜能；可能性；[电] 电势 adj. 潜在的；可能的；势的 428. metaphor ['metəfə] n. 暗喻，隐喻；比喻说法 429. neuron ['njʊərɒn] n. [解剖] 神经元，神经单位 430. geographical [dʒiə'græfikəl] adj. 地理的；地理学的 431. decimal ['desiməl] adj. 小数的；十进位的 n. 小数 432. locutionary []

adj. [语言学]言行为的；言之说行为的 433. deprive [di'praiv] vt. 使丧失，剥夺 434. address [ə'dres]

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vt. 演说；从事；忙于；写地址；向…致辞 n. 地址；演讲；致辞；说话的技巧 435. dyslexia [dɪs'leksɪə]

n. 难语症；[医] 诵读困难；阅读障碍 436. quite [kwait] adv. 很；相当；完全 437. target ['tɑ:git]

n. 目标；靶子 vt. 把……作为目标；规定……的指标；瞄准某物 438. vividly ['vividli] adv. 生动地；强烈地

439. fundamental [,fʌndə'mentəl]

adj. 根本的，根本的 n. 根本原理；根本原那么 440. fibre ['faibə] n. 纤维；纤维制品

441. performative [pə'fɔ:mətiv] adj. 表述行为的 n. 述行成分，述行语 442. reliable [ri'laiəbl]

adj. 可靠的；可信赖的 n. 可靠的人 443. ebb [eb]

n. 衰退；退潮；衰落 vi. 衰退；减少；衰落；潮退 444. purity ['pjuəriti]

n. [化学] 纯度；纯洁；纯洁；纯粹 445. predicate ['predikeit]

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vt. 断定为…；使…基于 vi. 断言，断定 n. 谓语，述语 adj. 谓语的；述语的 446. presupposition [,pri:sʌpə'ziʃən] n. 假定；预想；臆测 447. apricot ['eiprikɔt]

n. 杏，杏子；[园艺] 杏树；杏黄色 adj. 杏黄色的 448. arithmetic [ə'riθmətik, ,æriθ'metik] n. 算术，算法

449. evaluative [i'væljueitiv] adj. 可估价的 450. intact [ɪn'tækt]

adj. 完整的；原封不动的；未受损伤的 451. discrimination [dis,krimi'neiʃən] n. 歧视；区别，区分；识别力 452. attract [ə'trækt]

vt. 吸引；引起 vi. 吸引；有吸引力 453. transmission [trænz'miʃən, træns-, trɑ:n-] n. 传动装置，[机] 变速器；传递；传送；播送 454. pragmatic [præg'mætik] adj. 实际的；实用主义的；国事的 455. voltage ['vəʊltɪdʒ; 'vɒltɪdʒ] n. [电] 电压 456. origins []

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n. 品木宣言〔品牌名〕

457. extroversion [,ekstrəu'və:ʃən] n. [心理] 外向性；[医] 外翻

458. instrumental [,instru'mentəl, ,instrə-]

adj. 乐器的；有帮助的；仪器的，器械的 n. 器乐曲；工具字，工具格 459. antonymy [] n. 反义词组；反义现象 460. deserve [di'zə:v]

vi. 应受，应得 vt. 应受，应得 461. superior [sju:'piriə, sju:pə-]

adj. 上级的；优秀的，出众的；傲慢的 n. 上级，长官；优胜者，高手；长者 462. indicate ['indikeit] vt. 说明；指出；预示；象征 463. italicize []

vt. 在字下划横线；用斜体字排字；强调 vi. 用斜体字 464. substitutable [] adj. 可替换的

465. modification [,mɔdifi'keiʃən] n. 修改，修正；改变

466. interplay ['intəplei, ,intə'plei, 'in-]

n. 相互影响，相互作用 vi. 相互影响，相互作用 467. domain [dəu'mein]

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n. 领域；域名；产业；地产 468. bear [bεə]

vi. 承受；结果实 vt. 忍受；具有；支撑 n. 熊 469. monopoly [mə'nɔpəli] n. 垄断；垄断者；专卖权 470. elicit [i'lisit] vt. 抽出，引出；引起 471. pliment ['kɔmplimənt]

n. 恭维；称赞；问候；致意；道贺 vt. 恭维；称赞 472. whatsoever [,hwɔtsəu'evə] pron. 无论什么

473. exceptional [ik'sepʃənəl] adj. 异常的，例外的 n. 超常的学生 474. metaphorically [] adv. 隐喻地；用比喻 475. represent [,repri'zent]

vt. 代表；表现；描绘；回忆；再赠送 vi. 代表；提出异议 476. insufficient [,insə'fiʃənt] adj. 缺乏的，不充足的 n. 缺乏 477. possession [pə'zeʃən] n. 拥有；财产；领地；自制；着迷 478. precede [pri:'si:d, pri-]

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vt. 领先，在…之前；优于，高于 vi. 领先，在前面 479. strung [strʌŋ]

v. 捆扎，系上〔string的过去式和过去分词〕；收紧 480. invariably [in'vɛəriəbli] adv. 总是；不变地；一定地 481. striking ['straikiŋ]

adj. 显著的，突出的，惊人的；打击的；罢工的 v. 打〔strike的ing形式〕 482. obligation [,ɔbli'geiʃən] n. 义务；职责；债务 483. expose [ik'spəuz] vt. 揭露，揭露；使曝光；显示 484. aspirated ['æspəreitid]

adj. 送气音的 v. 吸气〔aspirate的过去式和过去分词形式〕；送气发音 485. approximately [ə'prɔksimitli] adv. 大约，近似地；近于 486. capture ['kæptʃə]

vt. 俘获；夺得 n. 捕获；战利品，俘虏 487. consequence ['kɔnsi,kwəns] n. 结果；重要性；推论 488. behaviourist [] n. 〔英〕行为主义者

489. grammatical [grə'mætikəl]

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adj. 文法的；符合语法规那么的 490. cerebrum [] n. [解剖] 大脑

491. foregoing ['fɔ:gəuiŋ]

adj. 前述的；前面的；在前的 v. 发生在…之前；走在…之前〔forego的ing形式〕 492. measurement ['meʒəmənt] n. 测量；[计量] 度量；尺寸；量度制 493. colloquial [kə'ləukwiəl] adj.白话的；通俗的；口语体的 494. semantically [] adv. 语义地

495. imitation [,imi'teiʃən]

n. 模仿，仿造；仿制品 adj. 人造的，仿制的 496. prise [kəm'praiz] vt. 包含；由…组成 497. tentative ['tentətiv]

adj. 试验性的，暂定的；踌躇的 n. 假设，试验 498. reflection [re'flekʃən] n. 反射；沉思；映象 499. sensation [sen'seiʃən] n. 感觉；轰动；感动 500. consensus [kən'sensəs]

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n. 一致；舆论；合意 501. former ['fɔ:mə]

adj. 从前的，前者的；前任的 n. 模型，样板；起形成作用的人 502. routine [ru:'ti:n]

n. [计] 程序；日常工作；例行公事 adj. 日常的；例行的 503. plural ['pluərəl] adj. 复数的 n. 复数 504. enhance [in'hɑ:ns, -hæns] vt. 提高；加强；增加 505. emphatic [im'fætik,-kəl] adj. 着重的；加强语气的；显著的 506. autism ['ɔ:tizəm]

n. [心理][科] 孤独症；自我中心主义 507. hypothesis [hai'pɔθisis] n. 假设

508. discipline ['disiplin]

n. 学科；纪律；训练；惩罚 vt. 训练，训导；惩戒 509. acculturation [ə,kʌltʃə'reiʃən]

n. 文化适应；文化移入；文化互渗〔不同文化在频繁交流中的互相影响〕 510. consultative [kən'sʌltətiv] adj. 咨询的

511. manifestation [,mænife'steiʃən]

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n. 表现；显示；示威运动 512. etymology [,eti'mɔlədʒi] n. 语源，[语] 语源学

513. correspondence [,kɔ:ris'pɔndəns] n. 通信；一致；相当 514. consolidate [kən'sɔlideit]

vt. 稳固，使固定；联合 vi. 稳固，加强 515. diglossia []

n. 使用两种语言或方言；双舌，舌裂 516. culinary ['kʌlinəri] adj. 厨房的；烹调用的 517. stimulate ['stimjuleit]

vt. 刺激；鼓舞，鼓励 vi. 起刺激作用；起促进作用 518. capable ['keipəbl]

adj. 能干的，能胜任的；有才华的 519. velum ['vi:ləm] n. [生物] 缘膜；菌膜；软腭 520. shed [ʃed]

vt. 流出；摆脱；散发；倾吐 vi. 流出；脱落；散布 n. 小屋，棚；分水岭 521. racial ['reiʃəl] adj. 种族的；人种的 522. privilege ['privilidʒ]

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n. 特权；优待；根本权利 vt. 给与…特权；特免 523. assumption [ə'sʌmpʃən] n. 假定；设想；担任；采取 524. approach [ə'prəutʃ]

n. 方法；途径；接近 vt. 接近；着手处理 vi. 靠近 525. acpany [ə'kʌmpəni]

vt. 陪伴，伴随；伴奏 vi. 伴奏，伴唱 526. observant [əb'zə:vənt]

adj. 善于观察的；机敏的；严格遵守的 527. respiration [,respə'reiʃən] n. 呼吸；呼吸作用 528. scorn [skɔ:n]

n. 轻蔑；嘲笑；藐视的对象 vt. 轻蔑；藐视；不屑做 vi. 表示轻蔑；表示鄙视 529. denotative [di'nəutətiv, 'di:nəuteitiv] adj. 外延的；指示的 530. idiom ['idiəm] n. 成语，习语；土话 531. concern [kən'sə:n]

vt. 涉及，关系到；使担忧 n. 关系；关心；关心的事 532. court [kɔ:t]

n. 法院；球场；朝廷；奉承 vt. 招致〔失败、危险等〕；向…献殷勤；设法获得 vi. 求爱

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533. ultimate ['ʌltimət]

adj. 最终的；极限的；根本的 n. 终极；根本；根本原那么 534. impose [im'pəuz]

vi. 利用；欺骗；施加影响 vt. 强加；征税；以…欺骗 535. impairment [im'pɛəmənt] n. 损伤，损害 536. integral ['intigrəl]

adj. 积分的；完整的，整体的 n. 积分；局部；完整 537. activate ['æktɪveɪt]

vt. 刺激；使活动；使活泼；使产生放射性 vi. 激活；有活力 538. inclusive [in'klu:siv] adj. 包括的，包含的 539. barrier ['bæriə]

n. 障碍物，屏障；界限 vt. 把…关入栅栏 540. spiritual ['spiritjuəl, -tʃuəl]

n. 圣歌〔尤指美国南部黑人的〕 adj. 精神的，心灵的 541. apparatus [,æpə'reitəs] n. 装置，设备；仪器；器官 542. approximate [ə'prɔksimit]

vt. 近似；使…接近；粗略估计 vi. 接近于；近似于 adj. [数] 近似的；大概的 543. import [im'pɔ:t, 'impɔ:t]

n. 进口，进口货；输入；意思，含义；重要性 vt. 输入，进口；含…的意思 vi.

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输入，进口

544. synthesis ['sinθisis] n. 综合，[化学] 合成；综合体 545. central ['sentrəl]

adj. 中心的；主要的；中枢的 n. 总机 546. frustration [frʌs'treiʃən] n. 挫折 547. limit ['limit]

n. 限制；限度；界限 vt. 限制；限定 548. duality [dju:'æləti] n. 二元性；[物]二象性 549. novelty ['nɔvəlti]

n. 新奇；新奇的事物；新颖小巧而廉价的物品 550. threaten ['θretən]

vt. 威胁；恫吓；预示 vi. 威胁；可能降临 551. collocation [,kɔləu'keiʃən] n. 搭配；配置；排列 552. mittee [kə'miti] n. 委员会 553. delay [di'lei]

vi. 延期；耽误 vt. 延期；耽误 n. 延期；耽误；被耽误或推迟的时间 554. converge [kən'və:dʒ]

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vi. 聚合；集中于一点 vt. 会聚；使聚集；使向一点会合 555. gap [gæp]

n. 间隙；缺口；空白 vi. 裂开 vt. 使成缺口 556. expert ['ekspə:t, ek'spə:t]

adj. 熟练的；行的；老练的 n. 专家；行家；能手 vt. 当专家；在…中当行家 557. affective [ə'fektiv] adj. 情感的；表达感情的 558. gradually ['grædjuəli] adv. 逐步地；渐渐地 559. merge [mə:dʒ]

vt. 合并；使合并；吞没 vi. 合并；融合 560. sulcus ['sʌlkəs] n. [动] 沟，槽；裂缝 561. manifest ['mænifest]

vt. 证明，说明；显示 vi. 显示，出现 n. 载货单，货单；旅客 adj. 显然的，明显的；明白的 562. lesion ['li:ʒən]

n. 损害；身体上的伤害；机能障碍 563. constraint [kən'streint]

n. [数] 约束；局促，态度不自然；强制 564. proficiency [prəu'fiʃənsi] n. 精通，熟练

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565. suffices []

vt. 使满足；足够…用；合格 vi. 足够；有能力 566. phonetics [fəu'netiks] n. 发音学，语音学

567. interpretation [in,tə:pri'teiʃən] n. 解释；翻译；演出 568. aphasia []

n. 失语症〔形容词aphasic〕 569. sessions ['sɛʃəns] n. 塞申斯〔姓氏〕

570. appreciation [əpriːʃɪ'eɪʃ(ə)n; -sɪ-] n. 欣赏，鉴别；增值；感 571. simultaneous [,siməl'teiniəs]

adj. 同时的；联立的；同时发生的 n. 同时译员 572. subsequent ['sʌbsɪkw(ə)nt] adj. 后来的，随后的 573. inaccurate [in'ækjurət] adj. 错误的

574. prejudice ['predʒudis] n. 偏见；侵害vt. 损害；使有偏见 575. ideal [ai'diəl]

adj. 理想的；完美的；想象的；不切实际的 n. 理想；典

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576. illustrate ['iləstreit]

vt. 说明，举例说明；图解 vi. 举例 577. extension [ik'stenʃən] n. 延长；延期；扩大；伸展；分机 578. piecemeal []

adv. 零碎地；逐个地 adj. 零碎的；逐渐的 n. 片；块 vt. 粉碎 579. route [ru:t, raut]

vt.按某路线发送 n. 路线；航线；通道 580. item ['aitəm] n. 条款，工程；一那么 581. attached [ə'tætʃt]

adj. 附加的；依恋的，充满爱心的 v. 附上〔attach的过去分词〕 582. account [ə'kaunt]

n. [会计] 账户；解释；[会计] 账目，账单；理由 vi. 解释；导致；报账 vt. 认为；把…视为 583. puff [pʌf]

vt. 喷出，开；使膨胀；夸；使骄傲自满 vi. 膨胀；开；鼓吹；夸 n. 粉扑；泡芙；蓬松；一阵喷烟；肿块；吹嘘，宣传广告 584. resemblance [ri'zembləns] n. 相似；相似之处；相似物；肖像 585. interpretative [ɪn'tɜːprɪtətɪv] adj. 解释的；作为说明的

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586. reveal [ri'vi:l]

vt. 显示；透露；揭露；泄露 n. 揭露；暴露；门侧，窗侧 587. individual [,indi'vidjuəl, -dʒəl]

adj. 个人的；个别的；独特的 n. 个人，个体 588. integrity [in'tegrəti] n. 完整；正直；老实；廉正 589. perlocutionary []

adj. 言语表达效果的；语效性的 590. subtle ['sʌtl]

adj. 微妙的；精细的；敏感的；狡猾的；稀薄的 591. level ['levəl]

n. 水平；标准；水平面 adj. 水平的；平坦的；同高的 vi. 瞄准；拉平；变得平坦 vt. 使同等；对准；弄平 592. faulty ['fɔ:lti] adj. 有错误的；有缺点的 593. underlying [,ʌndə'laiiŋ]

adj. 潜在的；根本的；在下面的；优先的 v. 放在…的下面；为…的根底；优先于〔underlie的ing形式〕 594. contexts []

n. 环境，上下文〔context复数〕 595. investigation [in,vesti'geiʃən] n. 调查；调查研究

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596. petence ['kɔmpitəns]

n. 能力，胜任；权限；作证能力；足以过舒适生活的收入 597. appropriate [ə'prəuprieit, ə'prəupriət] adj. 适当的 vt. 占用；拨出 598. humility [hju:'miləti] n. 谦卑，谦逊

599. surgically ['sə:dʒikəli] adv. 如外科手术般地 600. revolve [ri'vɔlv, -'vɔ:lv]

vi. 旋转；循环出现；反复考虑 vt. 使…旋转；使…循环；反复考虑 n. 旋转；循环；旋转舞台

601. correlation [,kɔ:ri'leiʃən] n. [数] 相关，关联；相互关系 602. statement ['steitmənt] n. 声明；述，表达；报表，清单 603. operate ['ɔpəreit]

vi. 运转；动手术；起作用 vt. 操作；经营；引起；对…开刀 604. release [ri'li:s]

vt. 释放；发射；让与；允许发表 n. 释放；发布；让与 605. monly ['kɔmənli] adv. 一般地；通常地；普通地 606. virtue ['və:tju:]

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n. 美德；优点；贞操；成效 607. focal ['fəukəl]

adj. 焦点的，在焦点上的；灶的，病灶的 608. equivalent [i'kwivələnt]

adj. 等价的，相等的；同意义的 n. 等价物，相等物 609. acplish [ə'kʌmpliʃ, ə'kɔm-] vt. 完成；实现；到达 610. concept ['kɔnsept] n. 观念，概念 611. insight ['insait] n. 洞察力；洞悉 612. drift [drift]

n. 漂流，漂移；趋势；漂流物 vi. 漂流，漂移；漂泊 vt. 使…漂流；使…受风吹积

613. stage [steidʒ]

n. 阶段；舞台；戏剧；驿站 vt. 举行；上演；筹划 vi. 举行；适于上演；乘驿车旅行

614. prestige [pre'sti:ʒ, -'sti:dʒ, 'prestidʒ] n. 威望，声望；声誉 615. ordinate ['ɔ:dinət, -neit] n. 纵座标；纵线 616. jealously ['dʒeləsli]

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adv. 妒忌地；猜疑地

617. mutually ['mju:tʃuəli, -tjuəli] adv. 互相地；互助 618. extent [ik'stent] n. 程度；围；长度 619. larynx ['læriŋks] n. [解剖] 喉；喉头

620. anomalous [ə'nɔmələs] adj. 异常的；不规那么的；不恰当的 621. haphazard [,hæp'hæzəd, 'hæphæzəd]

adj. 偶然的；随便的；无方案的 n. 偶然；偶然事件 adv. 偶然地；随意地 622. retention [ri'tenʃən]

n. 保存；拘留，滞留；记忆力；闭尿 623. bilingual [bai'liŋgwəl] adj. 双语的 n. 通两种语言的人 624. receive [ri'si:v]

vt. 收到；接待；接纳 vi. 接收 625. customary ['kʌstə,məri] adj. 习惯的；通常的 n. 习惯法汇编 626. evolve [i'vɔlv]

vt. 开展，进化；进化；使逐步形成；推断出 vi. 开展，进展；进化；逐步形成 627. acronym ['ækrəunim]

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n. 首字母缩略词 628. declining [di'klainiŋ]

adj. 下滑的；衰退的；倾斜的 v. 下降；衰退；婉〔decline的ing形式〕 629. asterisk ['æstərisk]

n. 星号 vt. 注上星号；用星号标出 630. esteem [i'sti:m]

vt. 尊敬；认为；考虑；估价 n. 尊重；尊敬 631. rear [rɪə]

vt. 培养；树立；栽种 vi. 暴跳；高耸 adv. 向后；在后面 adj. 前方的；后面的；反面的 n. 后面；屁股；前方部队 632. agency ['eidʒənsi]

n. 代理，中介；代理处，经销处 633. adequately ['ædikwitli] adv. 充分地；足够地；适当地 634. duration [djuə'reiʃən] n. 持续

635. removed [ri'mu:vd]

adj. 远离的；隔了...代的 v. remove的变形 636. sophistication [sə,fisti'keiʃən] n. 复杂；狡辩；老于世故；有教养 637. occupy ['ɔkjupai]

vt. 占据，占领；居住；使忙碌

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638. interation [] n. 交互图标，交互影响 639. constitute ['kɔnstitju:t] vt. 组成，构成；建立；任命 640. divergence [dai'və:dʒəns, di-] n. 分歧

641. animate ['ænimeit, 'ænimət]

vt. 使有生气；使活泼；鼓舞；推动 adj. 有生命的 642. retardation [,ri:tɑ:'deiʃən] n. 阻滞；迟延；阻碍 643. advisable [əd'vaizəbl] adj. 明智的，可取的，适当的 644. dot [dɔt]

n. 点，圆点；嫁妆 vi. 打上点 vt. 加小点于 645. associate [ə'səuʃieit, ə'səuʃiət, -eit]

vi. 交往；结交 n. 同事，伙伴；关联的事物 vt. 联想；使联合；使发生联系 adj. 副的；联合的 646. pride [praid]

n.自豪；骄傲；自尊心 vt. 使得意，以…自豪 vi. 自豪 647. phenomenon [fi'nɔminən, fə-] n. 现象；奇迹；出色的人才 648. imperative [im'perətiv]

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adj. 必要的，势在必行的；命令的；紧急的 n. 需要；命令；祈使语气；规那么 649. causative []

adj. 成为原因的；惹起…的 n. 使役动词 650. iconic [ai'kɔnik] adj. 图标的，形象的 651. resistance [ri'zistəns]

n. 阻力；电阻；抵抗；对抗；抵抗力 652. pose [kəm'pəuz]

vt. 构成；写作；使平静；排…的版 vi. 组成；作曲；排字 653. option ['ɔpʃən]

n. [计] 选项；选择权；买卖的特权 654. attain [ə'tein]

vt. 到达，实现；获得；到达 vi. 到达；获得；到达 n. 成就 655. serve [sə:v]

vt. 招待，供给；为…效劳；对…有用；可作…用 vi. 服役，效劳；适合，足够；发球；招待，侍候 n. 发球，轮到发球 656. disturbance [di'stə:bəns] n. 干扰；骚乱；忧虑 657. instinct ['instiŋkt]

n. 本能，直觉；天性 adj. 充满着的 658. terminology [,tə:mi'nɔlədʒi] n. 术语，术语学；用辞

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659. pharynx ['færiŋks] n. [解剖] 咽

660. available [ə'veiləbl]

adj. 有效的，可得的；可利用的；空闲的 661. loan [ləun]

n. 贷款；借款 vi. 借出 vt. 借；借给 662. declare [di'klεə]

vt. 宣布，声明；断言，宣称 vi. 声明，宣布 663. investigate [in'vestigeit] v. 调查；研究 664. content ['kɔntent]

n. 容，目录；满足；容量 adj. 满意的 vt. 使满足 665. biologically [baiə'lɔdʒikli] adv. 生物学上，生物学地 666. callosum [ka:'ləusəm] n. 胼胝体

667. specifying ['spesifaiiŋ]

n. 说明 v. 指定；具体说明〔specify的ing形式〕 668. sameness ['seimnis] n. 一样；千篇一律；单调 669. collection [kə'lekʃən]

n. 采集，聚集；[税收] 征收；收藏品；募捐

. . word.zl-

. -

670. metaphorical [,metə'fɔrik-'fɔ:,-kəl] adj. 比喻性的，隐喻性的 671. estimate ['estimeit]

vi. 估计，估价 n. 估计，估价；判断，看法 vt. 估计，估量；判断，评价 672. implicature [im'plikətʃə] n. 含意；蕴意 673. critical ['kritikəl]

adj. 鉴定的；[核] 临界的；批评的，爱挑剔的；危险的；决定性的；评论的 674. document ['dɔkjumənt, 'dɔkjument] n. 文件，公文；[计] 文档；证件 vt. 用文件证明 675. figure ['figə]

n. 数字；人物；图形；价格；〔人的〕体形；画像 vi. 计算；出现；扮演角色 vt. 计算；认为；描绘；象征 676. fierce [fiəs]

adj. 凶猛的；猛烈的；暴躁的 677. naturalized []

adj. 归化的；入籍的；[动] 自然化的；驯化的 v. 使自然化；承受…入国籍；采纳〔naturalize的过去式和过去分词〕 678. possess [pə'zes]

vt. 控制；使掌握；持有；迷住 679. assess [ə'ses] vt. 评定；估价；对…征税

. . word.zl-

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680. civil ['sivəl]

adj. 公民的；民间的；文职的；有礼貌的；根据民法的 681. intrinsic [in'trinsik,-kəl] adj. 本质的，固有的

682. discourse ['diskɔ:s, dis'kɔ:s]

n. 论述；谈话；演讲 vi. 演说；谈论；讲述 vt. 说出；演奏出 683. extremely [ɪk'strimli] adv. 非常，极其；极端地 684. facilitate [fə'siliteit] vt. 促进；帮助；使容易 685. previous ['pri:vjəs]

adj. 以前的；早先的；过早的 adv. 在先；在…以前 686. plausible ['plɔ:zəble]

adj. 貌似可信的，花言巧语的；貌似真实的，貌似有理的 687. eventually [i'ventʃuəli] adv. 最后，终于 688. selection [si'lekʃən] n. 选择，挑选；选集；精选品 689. employ [im'plɔi]

vt. 使用，采用；雇用；使忙于，使从事于 n. 使用；雇用 690. pattern ['pætən]

n. 模式；图案；样品 vt. 模仿；以图案装饰 vi. 形成图案

. . word.zl-

. -

691. string [striŋ]

n. 线，细绳；一串，一行 vt. 扎，缚；使排成一列，串起；伸展，拉直 vi. 连成一串；排成一列 692. reinforce [,ri:in'fɔ:s]

vt. 加强，加固；强化；补充 vi. 求援；得到增援；给予更多的支持 n. 加强；加固物；加固材料 693. confirm [kən'fə:m]

vt. 确认；确定；证实；批准；使稳固 694. respect [ri'spekt]

n. 尊敬，尊重；方面；敬意 vt. 尊敬，尊重；遵守 695. minor ['mainə]

adj. 未成年的；次要的；较小的；小调的；二流的 n. 未成年人；小调；副修科目 vi. 副修

696. simplification [,simplifi'keiʃən] n. 简单化；单纯化 697. encounter [in'kauntə]

vt. 遭遇，邂逅；遇到 n. 遭遇，偶然碰见 vi. 遭遇；偶然相遇 698. abrupt [ə'brʌpt]

adj. 生硬的；突然的；唐突的；陡峭的 699. affected [ə'fektid]

adj. 受到影响的；做作的；假装的 vt. 影响；假装；使…感动〔affect的过去式和过去分词〕

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. -

700. hemisphere ['hemi,sfiə] n. 半球

701. fundamentally [,fʌndə'mentli] adv. 根本地，从根本上；根底地 702. conservative [kən'sə:vətiv] adj. 保守的 n. 保守派，守旧者 703. expand [ik'spænd]

vt. 扩；使膨胀；详述 vi. 开展；开，展开 704. gender ['dʒendə]

n. 性；性别；性交 vt. 生〔过去式gendered，过去分词gendered，现在分词gendering，第三人称单数genders，形容词genderless〕 705. instance ['instəns]

n. 实例；情况；建议 vt. 举...为例 706. signify ['signifai]

vt. 表示；意味；预示vi. 有重要性；要紧；冒充行 707. presupposes []

vt. 假定；预料；以…为先决条件 708. demonstrate ['demənstreit] vt. 证明；展示；论证 vi. 示威

709. association [ə,səusi'eiʃən, ə,səuʃi'ei-] n. 协会，联盟，社团；联合；联想 710. spontaneously [spɔn'teniəsli]

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adv. 自发地；自然地；不由自主地 711. alternative [ɔ:l'tə:nətiv]

adj. 供选择的；选择性的；交替的 n. 二中择一；供替代的选择 712. reduce [ri'dju:s, -'du:s]

vt. 减少；降低；使处于；把…分解 vi. 减少；缩小；归纳为 713. consciously ['kɔnʃəsli] adv. 自觉地；有意识地 714. parative [kəm'pærətiv]

adj. 比较的；相当的 n. 比较级；对手 715. enormously []

adv. 巨，庞；非常地，在极大程度上 716. passive ['pæsiv]

adj. 被动的，消极的；被动语态的 n. 被动语态 717. previously ['pri:vju:sli] adv. 以前；预先；仓促地 718. irregular [i'regjulə]

n. 不规那么物；不合规格的产品 adj. 不规那么的；无规律的；非正规的；不合法的

719. empirical []

adj. 经历主义的，完全根据经历的 720. disciplinary ['disiplinəri, disi'plinəri] adj. 规律的；训练的；训诫的

. . word.zl-

. -

721. subsection ['sʌb,sekʃən, sʌb's-] n. 分段，分部；细分；小局部 722. perception [pə'sepʃən]

n. 知觉；[生理] 感觉；看法；洞察力；获取 723. interpret [in'tə:prit] vt. 说明；口译 vi. 解释；翻译 724. elaborate [i'læbərət, i'læbəreit]

adj. 精心制作的；详尽的；煞费苦心的 vt. 精心制作；详细阐述；从简单成分合成〔复杂有机物〕 vi. 详细描述；变复杂 725. panion [kəm'pænjən]

n. 同伴；朋友；指南；手册 vt. 陪伴 726. definite ['definit] adj. 一定的；确切的 727. constative [kən'steitiv]

adj. 表命令、方案、愿望等之假定的 728. instruction [in'strʌkʃən] n. 指令，命令；指示；教诲；用法说明 729. severe [si'viə]

adj. 严峻的；严厉的；剧烈的；苛刻的 730. accent ['æksənt, æk'sent]

n. 口音；重音；强调；特点；重音符号 vt. 强调；重读；带…口音讲话 731. ethnic ['eθnik]

. . word.zl-

. -

adj. 种族的；人种的

732. cerebral ['serɪbr(ə)l; sə'riːbr(ə)l] adj. 大脑的，脑的 733. crucial ['kru:ʃəl]

adj. 重要的；决定性的；定局的；决断的 734. sincere [sin'siə]

adj. 真诚的；诚挚的；真实的 735. expanding [ik'spændiŋ]

adj. 扩大的；扩展的 v. 扩大，扩展〔expand的现在分词形式〕；使膨胀，详述 736. variety [və'raiəti] n. 多样；种类；杂耍 737. analogy [ə'nælədʒi] n. 类比；类推；类似

738. subsystem ['sʌb,sistəm, sʌb's-] n. 子系统；次要系统 739. praise [preiz]

n. 赞扬；称赞；荣耀；崇拜 vt. 赞美，歌颂；表扬vi. 赞美；赞扬 740. claim [kleim]

vi. 提出要求 vt. 要求；声称；需要；认领 n. 要求；声称；索赔；断言；值得 741. halt [hɔːlt]

vi. 停顿；立定；踌躇，犹豫 n. 停顿；立定；休息 vt. 使停顿；使立定 742. brief [bri:f]

. . word.zl-

. -

adj. 简短的，简洁的；短暂的，草率的 n. 摘要，简报；概要，诉书 vt. 简报，摘要；作…的提要 743. chunk [tʃʌŋk] n. 大块；矮胖的人或物 744. examine [ig'zæmin]

vt. 检查；调查；检测；考试 vi. 检查；调查 745. generalize ['dʒenərəlaiz]

vt. 概括；推广；使...一般化 vi. 形成概念 746. acquaintance [ə'kweintəns] n. 熟人；相识；了解；知道 747. tempo ['tempəu] n. 速度，开展速度；拍子 748. technical ['teknikəl]

adj. 工艺的，科技的；技术上的；专门的 749. maintaining [mein'teiniŋ]

n. 维护；保养 v. 维持；保养〔maintain的ing形式〕 750. prototype ['prəutətaip] n. 原型；标准，模 751. whether ['weðə] conj. 是否；不管 752. distinct [dis'tiŋkt]

adj. 明显的；独特的；清楚的；有区别的

. . word.zl-

. -

753. course [kɔ:s]

n. 过程；进程；道路；一道菜 vt. 追赶；跑过 vi. 指引航线；快跑 754. simultaneously [saiməl'teiniəsli] adv. 同时地 755. utterances []

n. 表达；说话；说话方式 756. propose [prəu'pəuz]

vt. 建议；打算，方案；求婚 vi. 建议；求婚；打算 757. initial [i'niʃəl]

adj. 最初的；字首的 vt. 用的首字母签名 n. 词首大写字母 758. intimate ['intimət]

adj. 亲密的；私人的；精通的；有性关系的 n. 知己；至交 vt. 暗示；通知；宣布

759. undergo [,ʌndə'gəu]

vt. 经历，经受；忍受 [过去式underwent 过去分词undergone 现在分词undergoing ] 760. clarify ['klærifai]

vt. 澄清；说明 vi. 得到澄清；变得明晰；得到净化 761. idiomatic [,idiə'mætik]

adj. 惯用的；符合语言习惯的；通顺的 762. false [fɔ:ls]

adj. 错误的；虚伪的；伪造的 adv. 欺诈地

. . word.zl-

. -

763. affiliation [ə,fili'eiʃən] n. 友好关系；参加；联盟；附属关系 764. cohesion [kəu'hi:ʒən] n. 凝聚；结合；[力] 聚力 765. grasp [grɑ:sp, græsp]

n. 抓住；理解；控制 vt. 抓住；领会 vi. 抓 766. plus [plʌs]

n. 正号，加号；好处；附加额 adj. 正的；附加的 prep. 加，加上 767. form [fɔ:m]

n. 形式，形状；形态，外形；方式；表格 vt. 构成，组成；排列，组织；产生，塑造 vi. 形成，构成；排列 768. exhausted [ig'zɔ:stid]

adj. 疲惫的；耗尽的 v. 耗尽；用尽；使…精疲力尽〔exhaust的过去式〕 769. phonic ['fəunik, 'fɔ-]

adj. 有声的，浊音的；声音的，语音的；声学的 770. interaction [,intər'ækʃən] n. 相互作用；[数] 交互作用 771. concrete [kən'kri:t, 'kɔnkri:t]

adj. 混凝土的；实在的，具体的；有形的 vi. 凝结 vt. 使凝固；用混凝土修筑 n. 具体物；凝结物 772. violate ['vaiəleit] vt. 违反；侵犯，阻碍；亵渎

. . word.zl-

. -

773. causation [kɔ:'zeiʃən] n. 原因；因果关系；出现 774. obtain [əb'tein, ɔb-] vi. 获得；流行 vt. 获得 775. controversies []

n. 争论；辩论〔controversy的复数〕 776. objectivity [,ɔbdʒek'tivəti] n. 客观；客观性

777. correspond [,kɔ:ri'spɔnd] vi. 符合，一致；相应；通信 778. deprivation [,depri'veiʃən] n. 剥夺；损失；免职

779. contact ['kɔntækt, kən'tækt]

n. 接触，联系 vt. 使接触 vi. 联系，接触 780. version ['və:ʃən] n. 版本；译文；倒转术 781. probe [prəʊb]

n. 探针；调查 vi. 调查；探测 vt. 探查；用探针探测 782. identity [ai'dentəti]

n. 身份；同一性，一致；特性；恒等式 783. typical ['tipikəl]

adj. 典型的；特有的；象征性的

. . word.zl-

. -

784. title ['taitl]

n. 冠军；标题；头衔；权利；字幕 vt. 加标题于；赋予头衔；把…称为 adj. 冠军的；标题的；头衔的 785. engage [in'geidʒ]

vt. 吸引，占用；使参加；雇佣；使订婚；预定 vi. 从事；容许，保证；交战；啮合

786. ponential [,kɔmpə'nenʃəl] adj. 成分的；与成分有关的 787. tendency ['tendənsi] n. 倾向，趋势；癖好

788. specialization [,speʃəlai'zeiʃən, -li'z-] n. 专门化；特殊化；特化作用 789. modesty ['mɔdisti] n. 谦逊；质朴；稳重 790. regardless [ri'gɑ:dlis, ri:-] adj. 不管；不顾；不注意 791. purely ['pjuəli]

adv. 纯粹地；仅仅，只不过；完全地；贞淑地；清洁地 792. trigger ['trigə]

vt. 引发，引起；触发 vi. 松开扳柄 n. 扳机；[电子] 触发器；制滑机 793. progressive [prəu'gresiv]

adj. 进步的；先进的 n. 改革论者；进步分子

. . word.zl-

. -

794. monolithic [,mɔnəu'liθik]

adj. 整体的；巨石的，庞大的；完全统一的 n. 单块集成电路，单片电路 795. establish [i'stæbliʃ]

vt. 建立；创办；安置 vi. 植物定植 796. slip [slɪp]

vi. 滑动；滑倒；犯错；失足；减退 vt. 使滑动；滑过；摆脱；塞入；闪开 n. 滑，滑倒；片，纸片；错误；下跌；事故 adj. 滑动的；有活结的；活络的 abbr. 串行线路接口协议，是旧式的协议〔Serial Line Interface Protocol〕 797. restricted [ri'striktid]

adj. 受限制的；的 v. 限制〔restrict的过去式和过去分词〕 798. access ['ækses, 'æksəs, æk'ses]

vt. 使用；存取；接近 n. 进入；使用权；通路 799. triggers ['trigəz]

n. 触发器；触发物〔trigger的复数〕 v. 引起〔trigger的单三形式〕；引爆 800. orthographic [,ɔ:θəu'græfik] adj. 正字法的；拼字正确的；直角的 801. cortex ['kɔ:teks] n. [解剖] 皮质；树皮；果皮 802. spontaneous [spɔn'teiniəs] adj. 自发的；自然的；无意识的 803. impact ['impækt, im'pækt]

vt. 影响；撞击；冲突；压紧 vi. 冲击；产生影响 n. 影响；效果；碰撞；冲击

. . word.zl-

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力

804. inextricably [,inik'strikəbli] adv. 逃不掉地；解不开地；解决不了地 805. integrative ['intigreitiv] adj. 综合的

806. notoriously [nəu'tɔ:riəsli]

adv. 众所周知地；声名狼藉地；恶名昭彰地 807. proper ['prɔpə]

adj. 适当的；本身的；特有的；正派的 adv. 完全地 808. positive ['pɔzətiv, -zi-]

adj. 积极的；[数] 正的，[化学][医] 阳性的；确定的，肯定的；实际的，真实的；绝对的 n. 正数；[摄] 正片

809. neurolinguistics [,nʊrolɪŋ'gwɪstɪks] n. 神经语言学

810. aspirate ['æspəreit, 'æspərət]

vt. 送气发音；吸入 adj. 送气音的 n. 送气音；抽出物 811. plicate ['kɔmplikeit] vt. 使复杂化；使恶化；使卷入 812. encode [en'kəud] vt. [计] 编码，译码

813. implication [,impli'keiʃən] n. 含义；暗示；牵连，卷入

. . word.zl-

. -

814. perpetuate [pə'petʃueit, -tju-] vt. 使不朽；保持 adj. 长存的 815. dialect ['daiəlekt]

n. 方言，土话；同源语；行话；个人用语特征 adj. 方言的 816. discover [dis'kʌvə] vt. 发现；觉察 vi. 发现 817. prevalent ['prevələnt] adj. 流行的；普遍的，广传的 818. outperform [,autpə'fɔ:m] vt. 胜过；做得比……好 819. property ['prɔpəti] n. 性质，性能；财产；所有权 820. marginal ['mɑ:dʒinəl] adj. 边缘的；临界的；末端的 821. properties []

n. 性能；道具，容〔property的复数形式〕 822. withheld ['wið'held]

v. 保存；拘留；抑制〔withhold的过去式〕 823. mediate ['mi:dieit]

vi. 调解；斡旋；居中 vt. 调停；传达 adj. 间接的；居间的 824. program ['prəugræm, -grəm]

n. 程序；方案；大纲 vt. 用程序指令；为…制订方案；为…安排节目 vi. 编程

. . word.zl-

. -

序；安排节目；设计电脑程式 825. identical [ai'dentikəl]

adj. 同一的；完全一样的 n. 完全一样的事物 826. verbalize ['və:bəlaiz]

vi. 累赘；唠叨；以言语表述 vt. 使…变成动词；用言语表达 827. evolved []

n. 进化了的 v. 使逐步形成〔evolve的过去分词〕 828. filter [filtə]

vi. 滤过；渗入；慢慢传开 n. 滤波器；[化工] 过滤器；筛选；滤光器 vt. 过滤；渗透；用过滤法除去

829. longitudinal [,lɒn(d)ʒɪ'tjuːdɪn(ə)l; ,lɒŋgɪ-] adj. 长度的，纵向的；经线的 830. cohort ['kəʊhɔːt]

n. 一群；步兵大队；支持者；同生群 831. intention [in'tenʃən] n. 意图；目的；意向；愈合 832. specific [spi'sifik]

adj. 特殊的，特定的；明确的；详细的；[药] 具有特效的 n. 特性；细节；特效药

833. lobe [ləʊb]

n. 〔脑、肺等的〕叶；裂片；耳垂；波瓣 834. bony ['bəuni]

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adj. 骨的；多骨的；瘦骨嶙峋的；似骨的 835. isolation ['aisə'leiʃən]

n. 隔离；孤立；[电] 绝缘；[化学] 离析 836. rhythm ['riðəm, 'riθəm] n. 节奏；韵律

837. monument ['mɔnjumənt]

n. 纪念碑；历史遗迹；不朽的作品 vt. 为…树碑 838. requisite ['rekwizit]

adj. 必备的，必不可少的；需要的 n. 必需品 839. desire [di'zaiə]

n. 欲望；要求，心愿；性欲vt. 想要；要求；希望得到… vi. 渴望 840. tumour ['tju:mə] n. [肿瘤] 瘤；肿瘤；肿块 841. separation [,sepə'reiʃən]

n. 别离，分开；间隔，距离；[法] 分居；缺口 842. origin ['ɔridʒin, 'ɔ:-] n. 起源；原点；出身；开端 843. strategy ['strætidʒi] n. 战略，策略

844. domestic [dəu'mestik]

adj. 国的；家庭的；驯养的；一心只管家务的 n. 国货；佣人 845. term [tə:m]

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n. 术语；学期；期限；条款 vt. 把…叫做 846. mental ['mentəl]

adj. 精神的；脑力的；疯的 n. 精神病患者 847. regains []

vt. 恢复；重新获得；收回 vi. 上涨 n. 收复；取回 848. cluster ['klʌstə]

n. 群；簇；丛；串 vi. 群聚；丛生 vt. 使聚集；聚集在某人的周围 849. embodied []

v. 呈现〔embody的过去式及过去分词形式〕；具体表达 850. realization [,riəlai'zeiʃən, ,ri:-, -li'z-] n. 实现；领悟 851. negative ['negətiv]

adj. [数] 负的；消极的；否认的；阴性的 n. 否认；负数；[摄] 底片 vt. 否认；拒绝

852. literal ['litərəl]

adj. 文字的；逐字的；无夸的

自考“英语语言学〞资料〔1〕 1.1.What is language？

Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication.It is a system，since linguistic elements are arranged systematically，rather than randomly.Arbitrary，in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work 〔like book〕and

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the object it refers to.This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different books：book in English，livre in French，in Japanese，in Chinese，check in Korean.It is symbolic，because words are associated with objects，actions，ideas etc.by nothing but convention.Namely，people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal，because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages，developed or new。Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms.The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak 〔and listen〕before they write 〔and read〕also indicates that language is primarily vocal，rather than written.The term human in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.

1.2.What are design features of language？

Design features here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal munication.They are arbitrariness，duality，productivity，displacement，cultural transmission and interchangeability

1.3.What is arbitrariness？

By“arbitrariness〞，we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds〔see I .1〕A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig.Language is therefore largely arbitrary.But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association，if we think of echo words，like“bang〞，

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“crash〞，“roar〞，which are motivated in a certain sense.Secondly，some pounds〔words pounded to be one word 〕are not entirely arbitrary either.“Type〞and“write〞are opaque or unmotivated words，while“type-writer〞is less so，or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it.So we can say“arbitrariness〞is a matter of degree.

1.4.What is duality？

Linguists refer“duality〞〔of structure〕to the fact that in all languages so far investigated，one finds two levels of structure or patterning.At the first，higher level，language is analyzed in terms of binations of meaningful units 〔such as morphemes，words etc.〕；at the second，lower level，it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves，but which bine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al.〔p.6〕，language is a system of two sets of structures，one of sounds and the other of meaning.This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units〔words〕，and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences〔note that we have dictionaries of words，but no dictionary of sentences！〕Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge.No animal munication system enjoys this duality，or even approaches this honour. 1.5.What is productivity？

Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one's native language，including those that has never heard

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before，but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.No one has ever said or heard“A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon〞，but he can say it when necessary，and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity，though，productivity never goes outside the language，thus also called“rule-bound creativity〞〔by N.Chomsky〕。 1.6.What is displacement？

“Displacement〞，as one of the design features of the human language，refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present，as easily as he does things present.In other words，one can refer to real and unreal things，things of the past，of the present，of the future.Language itself can be talked about too.When a man，for example，is crying to a woman，about something，it might be something that had occurred，or something that is occurring，or something that is to occur.When a dog is barking，however，you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there.It couldn't be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost.The bee’s system，nonetheless，has a small share of“displacement〞，but it is an unspeakable tiny share.

1.7.What is cultural transmission？

This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation，but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.It is true that the capacity for language in human beings〔N.Chomsky called it“language acquisition device〞，or LAD〕 has a genetic basis，but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‘s barking system.If

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a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language.The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf's roaring“tongue〞when he was saved.He learned thereafter，with no small difficulty，the ABC of a certain human language.

1.8.What is interchangeability？

〔1〕Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.We can say，and on other occasions can receive and understand，for example，“Please do something to make me happy.〞Though some people 〔including me〕 suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use，in other words，men and women may say different things，yet in principle there is no sound，or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot，or vice versa.On the other hand，a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener，he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen.It is turn-taking that makes social munication possible and acceptable.

〔2〕Some male birds，however，utter some calls which females do not〔or cannot？〕，and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable.When a dog barks，all the neighbouring dogs bark.Then people around can hardly tell which dog 〔dogs〕is are“speaking〞and which listening.

1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific？

First of all，human language has six“design features〞which animal munication systems do not have，at least not in the true sense of them〔see I .2-8〕Let's borrow C.F.Hocket's Chart that pares human language with some animals'systems，from Wang Gang〔1998，

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p.8〕。

Secondly，linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring.Washoe，a female chimpanzee，was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner.She was taught“American sign Language〞，and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy，for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly，a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language，not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so 〔see the“Wolf Child〞in I.7〕 1.10.What functions does language have？

Language has at least seven functions：phatic，directive，Informative，interrogative，expressive，evocative and performative.According to Wang Gang 〔1988，p.11〕，language has three main functions：a tool of munication，a tool whereby people learn about the world，and a tool by which people learn about the world，and a tool by which people create art .M .A.K.Halliday，representative of the London school，recognizes three“Macro-Functions〞： ideational，interpersonal and textual〔see ！11-17；see HU Zhuanglin et al.，pp10-13，pp394-396〕。 自考“英语语言学〞资料〔2〕 1.11What is the phatic function？

The“phatic function〞refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts〔rather than for exchanging information or ideas〕Greetings，farewells，and ments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.Much of the phatic language〔e.g“How are you？〞“Fine，thanks.〞〕

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is insincere if taken literally，but it is important.If you don't say“Hello〞to a friend you meet，or if you don't answer his“Hi〞，you ruin your friendship.

1.12.What is the directive function？

The“directive function〞means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something.Most imperative sentences perform this function，e.g“Tell me the result when you finish.〞Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can，according to J.Austin and J.Searle's“indrect speech act theory〞〔see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp271-278〕at least，serve the purpose of direction too，e.g.“If I were you，I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears！〞

1.13.What is the informative function？

Language serves an“informational function〞when used to tell something，characterized by the use of declarative sentences.Informative statements are often labelled as true or false〔falsehood〕According to P.Grice's“Cooperative Principle〞〔see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp282-283〕，one ought not to violate the“Maxim of Quality〞，when he is informing at all.

1.14.What is the interrogative[ˌɪntəˈrɔɡətiv] function？

When language is used to obtain information，it serves an“interrogative function〞This includes all questions that expect replies，statements，imperatives etc，according to the“indirect speech act theory〞，may have this function as well，e.g.“I'd like to know you better.〞This may bring forth a lot of personal information.Note that rhetorical questions make an exception，since they demand no answer，at least not the

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reader's/listener's answer

1.15.What is the expressive function？

The“expressive function〞is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples，like“Good heavens〞“My God〞Sentences like“I'm sorry about the delay〞can serve as good examples too，though in a subtle way.While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements，language used for the expressive function evaluates，appraises or asserts the speaker's own attitudes. 1.16.What is the evocative [iˈvɔkətiv] function？adj. 引起…记忆的, 唤起…感情的

The“evocative function〞is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.Its aim is，for example，to amuse，startle，antagonize，soothe，worry or please.Jokes〔not practical jokes，though〕are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener；advertising to urge customers to purchase certain modities；propaganda to influence public opinion.Obviously，the expressive and the evocative functions often go together，i.e.you may express，for example，your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in，or imposing it on，your listener. That's also the case with the other way round.

1.17.What is the performative function？

This means people speak to“do things〞or perform actions.On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence.When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan，the

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mayor may say“OK〞,which means more than speech,and more than an average social individual may do for the construction.The judge's imprisonment sentence,the president's war or independence declaration,etc，are performatives as well〔see J.Austin's speech Act Theory，Hu Zhuanglin，ecal.，pp271-278〕。 1.18.What is linguistics？

“Linguistics〞is the scientific study of language.It studies not just one language of any one society，but the language of all human beings.A linguist，though，does not have to know and use a large number of languages，but to investigate how each language is constructed.He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect，from class to class，how it changes from century to century，how children acquire their mother tongue，and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language.In short，linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of munication in their societies or munities〔see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp20-22〕

1.19.What makes linguistics a science？

Since linguistics is the scientific study of language，it ought to base itself upon the systematic，investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system.To make sense of the data，a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure，to be checked against the observed or observable facts.In order to make his analysis scientific,a linguist is usually guided by four principles:exhaustiveness，consistency，and objectivity.Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate

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explanation，in spite of the plicatedness.He is to leave no linguistic“stone〞unturned.Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible.Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study，a linguist should be〔or sound at least〕objective，matter-of-face，faithful to reality，so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research. 1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics？

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988 But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,applied

linguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology, lexicography, etymology,etc. 自考“英语语言学〞资料〔3〕

1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies？

The description of a language at some point of time〔as if it stopped developing〕is a synchrony study synchrony. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study 〔diachronic〕.An essay entitled“On the Use of THE〞，for example，may be synchronic，if the author does not recall the past of THE，and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration〔see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp25-27〕。 1.22.What is speech and what is writing？

〔1〕No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis，

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namely，the primacy of speech over writing.Speech is primary，because it existed long long before writing systems came into being.Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.Secondly，written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds，as in English and French as in Japanese.

〔2〕In contrast to speech,spoken form of language,writing as written codes,gives language new scope and use that speech does not have.Firstly,messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby，so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby，so that people of our time can read Beowulf，Samuel Johnson，and Edgar A.Poe.Thirdly，oral messages are readily subject to distortion，either intentional or unintentional 〔causing misunderstanding or malentendu〕，while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.

〔3〕Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech，different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.

1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches？ A linguistic study is“descriptive〞if it only describes and analyses the facts of language，and“prescriptive〞if it tries to lay down rules for“correct〞language behavior.Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on“high〞〔literary or religious〕written records.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive，however.the latter believes that whatever occurs in natural speech〔hesitation，inplete utterance，misunderstanding，etc.〕should be described in the analysis，and not be marked as

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incorrect，abnormal，corrupt，or lousy.These，with changes in vocabulary and structures，need to be explained also.

1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole？

F.de Saussure refers“langue〞to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity and refers“parole〞to the actual or actualized language，or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract，parole specific to the speaking situation；langue not actually spoken by an individual，parole always a naturally occurring event；langue relatively stable and systematic，parole is a mass of confused facts，thus not suitable for systematic investigation.What a linguist ought to do,according to Saussure,is to abstract langue from instances of parole，i.e.to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics.The langue-parole distinction is of great importance，which casts great influence on later linguists. 1.25.What is the difference between petence and performance？

〔1〕According to N.Chomsky,“petence〞is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language，and“performance〞is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker's petence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors . So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed petence.

〔2〕Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study petence，rather than performance.In other words，they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his

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native language.

〔3〕Chomsky's petence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as，though similar to,F.de Saussure's langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a munity,while petence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual.Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N.Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.

1.26.What is linguistic potential？What is actual linguistic behaviour？

These two terms,or the potential-behavior distinction，were made by M.A.K.Halliday in the 1960s，from a functional point of view.There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture，and similarly there are many things he can say，for example，to many people，on many topics.What he actually says 〔i.e.his“actual linguistic behavior〞〕on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items，each of which he could have said 〔linguistic potential〕。

1.27.In what way do language，petence and linguistic potential agree？In what way do they differ？And their counterparts？

Langue，petence and linguistic potential have some similar features,but they are innately different〔see 1.25〕Langue is a social product,and a set of speaking conventions;petence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker's mind；linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation.In other words，langue is invisible but reliable abstract system.petence means“knowing〞, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for

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“doing〞or“performing actions〞.They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure，Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole，performance and actual linguistic behavior.Paole，performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences. 1.28.What is phonetics？

“Phonetics〞is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making，especially those sounds used in speech,and provides methods for their description，classification and transcription〔see Hu Zhuanglin et al，pp39-40〕, speech sounds may be studied in different ways，thus by three different branches of phonetics.〔1〕Articulatory phonetics；the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.〔2〕Auditory phonetics，the branch of phonetic research from the hearer's point of view，looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear,the auditory nerve and the brain.〔3〕Acoustic phonetics：the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians，however，are interested in articulatory phonetics. 1.29.How are the vocal organs formed？

The vocal organs 〔see Figure1，Hu Zhuanglin et al.，p41〕，or speech organs，are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds.The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts；the initiator of the air-stream，the producer of voice and the resonating cavities. 1.30.What is place of articulation？

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It refers to the place in the mouth where,for example,the obstruction occurs,resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced，at least some vocal organs will get involved，e.g.lips，hard palate etc.，so a consonant may be one of the following〔1〕bilabial：[p,b,m]〔2〕labiodental：[f,v]〔3〕dental：[,]〔4〕alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z]〔5〕retroflex〔6〕palato-alveolar：[,]〔7〕palatal：[j]〔8〕velar[k,g,]〔9〕uvular〔10〕glottal：[h].

Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation.For example，the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate，and may be termed“labial-velar〞。 自考“英语语言学〞 资料〔4〕

1.31.What is the manner of articulation？

The“manner of articulation〞literally means the way a sound is articulated.At a given place of articulation，the airstream may be obstructed in various ways，resulting in various manners of articulation，are the following：〔1〕 plosive：[p,b,t,d,k,g]〔2〕nasal：[m,n]〔3〕trill〔4〕tap or flap〔5〕lateral：[l]〔6〕fricative：[f,v,s,z]〔7〕approximant：[w,j]〔8〕affricate

1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels？

Phoneticians，in spite of the difficulty，group vowels in 5 types：〔1〕long and short vowels，e.g.[i]〔4〕rounded and unround vowels，e.g.[i]〔5〕pure and gliding vowels，e.g.[I].

1.33.What is IPA？When did it e into being ？

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The IPA，abbreviation of“International Phonetic Alphabet〞,is a promise system making use of symbols of all sources,including diacritics indicating length,stress and intonation,indicating phonetic variation.Ever since it was developed in 1888，IPA has undergone a number of revisions.

1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription？

Inhandbook of phonetics，Henry Sweet made a distinction between“narrow〞and“broad〞transcriptions，which he called“Narrow Romic〞.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds，including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language. 1.35.What is phonology？What is difference between phonetics and phonology？ 〔1〕“Phonology〞is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall.Minimal pair，phonemes，allophones，free variation，plementary distribution，etc.，are all to be investigated by a phonologist.

〔2〕Phonetics，as discussed in I.28，is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description，classification and transcription.A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds，whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features，morphological features，and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances，to recognize a foreign

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“accent〞，to make up new words，to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses，to know what is and what is not a sound in one's language. 1.36.What is a phone？What is a phoneme？What is an allophone？

〔1〕A“phone〞is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones.When we hear the following words pronounced：[pit]，[tip]，[spit]，etc.，the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing，and three different[p]'s，readily making possible the“narrow transcription or diacritics〞.Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A“phoneme〞is a phonological unit；it is a unit that is of distinctive value.As an abstract unit，a phoneme is not any particular sound，but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.For example，the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit]，[tip] and [spit].

〔2〕The phones representing a phoneme are called its“allophones〞，i.e.the different 〔i.e.phones〕but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.So the different[p]'s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p].How a phoneme is represented by a phone，or which allophone is to be used，is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs.But the choice of an allophone is not random.In most cases it is rule-governed；these rules are to be found out by a phonologist. 1.37.What are minimal pairs？

When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string，the two forms〔i.e.，word〕are

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supposed to form a“minimal pair〞，e.g.“pill〞and“bill〞,“pill〞and“till〞，“till〞and“dill〞，“till〞and“kill〞，etc.All these words together constitute a minimal set.They are identical in form except for the initial consonants.There are many minimal pairs in English，which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes.It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language〔see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp65-66〕。 1.38.What is free variation？

If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast；namely，if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word，the two sounds then are said to be in“free variation〞.The plosives，for example，may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal 〔e.g，act，apt，good morning〕.The minute distinctions may，if necessary，be transcribed in diacritics.These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation.Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme. 1.39.What is plementary distribution？

When two sounds never occur in the same environment,they are in“plementary distribution〞.For example，the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s],and the unsaturated ones never occur initially.Sounds in plementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme.The allophones of[l],for example,are also in plementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel,the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only

after

a

voiceless

consonant,

such

as

in

the

words“please〞,“butler〞,“clear〞,etc.,and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or

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as a syllabic sound after a consonant，such as in the words“feel〞,“help〞,“middle〞,etc.

1.40.What is the assimilation rule？What is the deletion rule？

〔1〕The“assimilation rule〞assimilates one segment to another by“copying〞a feature of a sequential phoneme，thus making the two phones more similar.This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word.The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant.The negative prefix“in-〞serves as a good example.It may be pronounced as [in]，[i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts：e.g.，indiscrete-[ ]〔alveolar〕inconceivable-[ ]〔velar〕input-['imput]〔bilabial〕

〔2〕The“deletion rule〞tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented.While the letter“g〞is mute in“sign〞,“design〞and“paradigm〞it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives:“signature〞,“designation〞and“paradigmatic〞.The rule then can be stated as：delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling 〔see Dai Weidong，pp22-23〕。 自考“英语语言学〞资料〔5〕

1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology？What are suprasegmental features？

“Suprasegmental phonology〞refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme，such as syllable，word and sentence.

Hu Zhuanglin et al.,〔p，73〕includes stress,length and pitch as what they suppose to be

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“principal suprasegmental features〞，calling the concurrent patterning of three“intonation〞.Dai Weidong〔pp23-25〕 lists three also，but they are stress，tone and intonation.

1.42.What is morphology？

“Morphology〞is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.It is generally divided into two fields： inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology. 1.43.What is inflection/inflexion？

“Inflection〞is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes，such as number，person，finiteness，aspect，and case，which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached. 1.44.What is a morpheme？What is an allomorph？

〔1〕 The“morpheme〞is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content，a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning，whether it is lexical or grammatical.The word“boxes〞，for example，has two morphemes：“box〞and“-es〞，neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don't wish to sacrifice meaning.Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.

〔2〕 Allomorphs，like allophones vs.phones，are the alternate shapes 〔and thus phonetic forms〕 of the same morphemes.Some morphemes，though，have no more than one invariable form in all contexts，such as“dog〞，“cat〞，etc.The variants of the plurality“-s〞make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples：map-maps，

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mouse-mice，sheep-sheep etc.

1.45.What is a free morpheme？What is a bound morpheme？

A“free morpheme〞is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself，such as 'bed“，〞tree“，etc.A 〞bound morpheme“ is one that appears with at least another morpheme，such as 〞-s“ in 〞beds“，〞-al“ in 〞national“ and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.Those polymorphemic words are either pounds 〔bination of two or more free morphemes 〕or derivatives 〔word derived from free morphemes〕。 1.46.What is a root ？What is a stem？What is an affix？

A“root〞is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.In other words，a“root〞is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.“Internationalism〞is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme“nation〞as its root when“ inter-〞，“-al〞and“-ism〞are taken away. A“stem〞is any morpheme or bination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.It may be the same as，and in other cases，different from，a root.For example，in the word“friends〞,“friend〞is both the root and the stem，but in the word“friendships〞,“friendships〞is its stem,“friend〞is its root.Some words 〔i.e.，pounds 〕have more than one root，e.g.，“mailman〞,“girlfriend〞，ect.

An“affix〞is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used，only when added to another morpheme〔the root or stem〕.Affixes are limited in number in a language，and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix，e.g.，“mini-〞，“un-〞，ect.〔prefix〕；“-ise〞，“-tion〞，ect.〔suffix〕。 1.47.What are open classes？What are closed classes？

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In English，nouns，verbs，adjectives，and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary.They are“open –class words〞，since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes.The other syntactic categories are，for the most part，closed classes，or closed-class words.The number of them is hardly alterable，if they are changeable at all.

1.48.What is lexicon？What is word？What is lexeme？What is vocabulary？Lexicon？Word？Lexeme？Vocabulary？

“Lexicon〞，in its most general sense，is synonymous with vocabulary.In its technical sense，however，lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words，idioms and collocations.“Word〞is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers，whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition.It seems that it is hard，even impossible，to define“word〞linguistically.Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of“word〞，none of which，though，is expected to cope with all the situations：〔1〕a physically definable unit，e.g.，[it iz 'w ]〔phonological〕，“It is wonder〞〔orthographic〕〔2〕the mon factor underlying a set of forms 〔see what is the mon factor of“checks〞,“checked〞,“checking 〞etc.〕〔3〕a grammatical unit〔look at 〔1〕again；every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence〕。

According to Leonard Bloomfield，a word is a minimum free form 〔pare：a sentence is a maximum free form，according to Bloomfield 〕.There are other factors that may help us identify words：〔1〕stability 〔no great change of orthographic features〕；〔2〕relative

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uninterruptibility〔we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters〕.To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types：〔1〕variable and invariable words〔e.g.，-mats，seldom-？〕；〔2〕grammatical and lexical words〔e.g.to，in，etc.，and table，chair，ect.By“lexical words〞we mean the words that carry a semantic content，e.g.，nouns，verbs，adjectives and many adverbs；〔3〕closed-class and open-class words〔see I.47〕。

In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term“word〞，the term“lexeme〞is postulated as the abtract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts.For example，“write〞is the lexeme of the following words：“write〞，“write〞，“wrote〞，“writing〞，and“written.〞 “Vocabulary〞usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things.So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary.“vocabulary〞is also used to mean word list or glossary. 1.49.What is collocation？

“Collocation〞is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items.For example，we can“read〞a“book〞；“correct〞can narrowly occur with“book〞which is supposed to have faults，but no one can“read〞a“mistake〞because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates. 1.50.What is syntax？

“Syntax〞is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words，word groups

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and phrases are bined to form sentences in a language，or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements. 自考“英语语言学〞资料〔6〕 1.51.What is a sentence？

L.Bloomfield defines“sentence〞as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from，i.e.，it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form，it is a structurally independent linguistic form.It is also called a maximum free form.

1.52.What are syntactic relations？

“Syntactic relations〞refer to the ways in which words，word groups or phrases form sentences；hence three kinds of syntactic relations： positional relations，relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.

〔1〕“Positional relation〞，or“word order〞，refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language.It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F.de Saussure called“syntagmatic relations〞，or of what other linguists call“horizontal relations〞or“chain relations〞。

〔2〕“Relations of substitutability〞refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures.Saussure called them“associative relations〞.Other people call them“paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations〞。 〔3〕 By“relations of co-occurrence〞，one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong

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to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.

1.53.What is IC analysis？What are immediate constituents〔and ultimate constituents〕？

“IC analysis〞is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two〔or more〕segments.This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut are called“immediate constituents〞，and what are left at the final cut are called“ultimate constituents〞.For example，“John left yesterday〞can be thus segmented：“John| left | | yesterday〞.We get two immediate constituents for the first cut 〔|〕，and they are“John〞and“left yesterday〞.Further split〔||〕 this sentence generates three“ultimate constituents〞：“John〞，“left 〞and“yesterday〞。 1.54.What are endocentric and exocentric constructons？

“Endocentric construction〞is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents，i.e.，a word or a group of words，which serves as a definable“centre〞or“head〞.Usually noun phrases，verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction〞，opposite of endocentric construction，refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole ；that is to say，there is no definable centre or head inside the group.Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence，prepositional phrase，predicate〔verb+object〕 construction，and connective〔be+plement〕 construction. 1.55.What is a subject？A predicate？An object？

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〔1〕 In some language，an“subject〞refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case，such as“pater〞in the following example：\"pater filium amat\"〔put literally in English：the father the son loves〕.In English，a“grammatical subject〞refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test，e.g.，“He is a good cook〔isn't he？〕。〞

〔2〕 A“predicate〞refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together.e.g.,in the sentence The monkey is jumping ,is jumping is the predicate. 〔3〕 Traditionally“object〞refers to the receiver or goal of an action，and it is further classified into two kinds： direct object and indirect object.In some inflecting languages，an object is marked by case labels：the“accusative case〞for direct object，and the“dative case 〞for direct object，and the“dative case〞for indirect to word order〔after the verb and preposition〕 and by inflections〔of pronouns〕.E .g.，in the sentence“John kissed me〞，“me〞is the object.Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can bee a subject in passive transformation. 1.56.What is category？

The term“category〞in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense，e.g.，noun，verb，subject，predicate，noun phrase，verb phrase，etc.More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units： the categories of the noun，for example，include number，gender，case and countability ；and of the verb，for example，tense，aspect，voice，etc.

1.57.What is number？What is gender？What is case？

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〔1〕“Number〞is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular，dual，plural，etc.In English，number is mainly observed in nouns，and there are only two forms：singular and plural.Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.

〔

2

〕

“

Gender

〞

displays

such

contrasts

as\"masculinehe analysis of word classes.When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities，we natural gender〔the opposite is grammatical gender〕。

〔3〕“Case〞identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.In Latin grammar，cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word，and are given the terms\"accusative\English，the case category is realized in three ways：by following a preposition and by word order. 1.58.What is concord？What is government？

“Concord 〞may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories，e.g.“man runs〞,“men run〞.“Government〞requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category.In English，government applies only to pronouns among the variable words，that is，prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them，e.g.“I helped him；he helped me.〞 1.59.What is a phrase？What is a clause？

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〔1〕 A“phrase〞is a single element of structure containing more than one word，and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of“clauses〞Traditionally,it is seen as part of a structural hierachy,falling between a clause and word, e.g.“the three tallest girls〞〔nominal phrase〕.There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases.A“word group〞is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.Thus we have nominal group，verbal group，adverbial group，conjunction group and preposition group. 〔2〕 A“clause〞is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction，namely，in a sentence.Clauses can also be classified into two kinds：finite and non-finite clauses，the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase，participle phrase and gerundial phrase.〔For“sentence〞，see I.51.〕

1.60.What is conjoining？What is embedding？What is recursiveness？

“Conjoining〞refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another，e.g.“John bought a cat and his wife killed her.〞“Embedding〞refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence 〔or main clause〕 in syntactic subordination，e.g.“I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.〞By“recursiveness〞we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a plex sentence.This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses，e.g.“I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…〞 自考“英语语言学〞资料〔7〕

1.61.What is hypotactic relation？What is paratactic relation？

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“Hypotactic relation〞refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjunction，e.g.“He bought eggs and milk.〞“Paratactic relation〞refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition，punctuation or intonation，e.g.，“He bought tea，coffee，eggs and milk〞〔pay attention to the first three nouns connected without“and〞〕。 1.62.What is semantics？

“Semantics〞refers to the study of the munication of meaning through language.Or simply，it is the study of meaning. 1.63.What is meaning？

Though it is difficult to define，“meaning〞has the following meaning：〔1〕an intrinsic property；〔2〕the connotation of a word；〔3〕the words put after a dictionary entry；〔4〕the position an object occupies in a system；〔5〕what the symbol user actually refers to；〔6〕what the symbol user should refer to；〔7〕what the symbol user believes he is referring to；〔8〕what the symbol interpreter refers to；〔9〕what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to；〔10〕what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to… linguists argued about“meaning of meaning〞fiercely in the result of“realism〞，“conceptualism/mentalism〞，“mechanism〞，“contextualism〞，“behaviorism〞，“functionalism〞，etc.〔see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp140-142〕.Mention ought to be made of the“Semantic Triangle Theory〞of Ogden & Richards.We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because，according to the theory，they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent.

1.64.What is the difference¬；¬；¬；¬；¬；¬；¬；between

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meaning，concept，connotation，sense，implication，denotation，notation，reference，implicature and signification？

〔1〕“Meaning〞refers to the association of language symbols with the real word.〔2〕“Concept〞or“notion〞is the impression of objects in people's mind.〔3〕“connotation〞is the implied meaning，similar to“implication〞and“implicature〞.〔4〕“Sense〞is the lexical position in which a word finds itself.〔5〕“Denotation〞，like“sense〞，is not directly related with objects，but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.〔6〕“Reference〞is the word-object relationship.〔7〕“Implicature〞，in its narrow sense，refers to conversational implicature achieved by intentionally violating one of the four CP maxims 〔see I.122-123〕〔.8〕“Signification〞，in contrast with“value〞，mean the meaning of situation may not have any municative value，like“What's this？〞

1.65.What is the Semantic/Semiotic Triangle？

Ogden and Richards presented the classic“Semantic Triangle〞as manifested in the following diagram，in which the“symbol〞or“form〞refers to the linguistic elements 〔word，sentence，etc.〕，the“referent〞refers to the object in the world of experience，and“thought〞or“reference〞refers to concept or notion.Thus，the symbol a word signifies“things〞by virtue of the“concept〞，associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language.The“concept〞thus considered is meaning of the word.

1.66.What is contextualism？

“Contextualism〞is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from，or

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reduce it to，observable context：the“situational context〞and the“linguistic context〞.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatio-temporal situation，as the following factors are related to the situational context：〔1〕the speaker and the hearer；〔2〕the actions they are performing at the time；〔3〕various external objects and events；〔4〕deictic features.

The“linguistic context〞is another aspect of contextualism.It considers the probability of one word's co-occurrence or collocation with another，which forms part of the meaning，and an important factor in munication.

1.67.How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study？

〔1〕C.C.Fries〔1952〕makes a traditional distinction between lexical meaning and structural meaning.The former is expressed by those“meaningful〞parts of speech，such as nouns，verbs，adjectives，and adverbs，and is given in the dictionary associated with grammar.The latter expresses the distinction between the subject and the object of a sentence，oppositions of definiteness，tense the number，and the difference between statements，questions and requests.In a word，“the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meaning of the separate words plus such structural meaning…〞

〔2〕G.Leech〔1981〕 categorizes seven kinds of meaning，five of which are brought under the“associative meaning〞〔see the following chart〕。

〔3〕Different from the traditional and the functional approach，F.R.Palmer〔1981〕and J.Lyons〔1977〕suggest we draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning，the former being directly predictable from the grammatical and

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lexical features of the sentence，while the latter includes all the various types of meaning not necessarily associated thereto. 1.68.What is synonymy？

“Synonymy〞is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning.Dictionary makers 〔lexicographers〕rely on the existence of synonymy for their definitions.Some semanticians maintain，however，that there are no real synonyms，because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects：

〔1〕In shades of meaning 〔e.g.，finish，plete，close，conclude，terminate，finalize，end，etc.〕；

〔2〕In stylistic meaning〔see 1.67〕；

〔3〕In emotive meaning〔or affective meaning，see 1.67〕； 〔4〕In range of use 〔or collocative meaning，see 1.67〕；

〔5〕In British and American English usages [e.g.，autumn 〔BrE〕，fall 〔AmE〕]. Simeon Potter said，“ Language is like dress.We vary our dress to suit the occasion.We do not appear at a friend's silver-wedding anniversary in gardening clothes，nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-jacket.〞This means the learning lf synonyms is important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well. 1.69.What is Antonymy？How many kinds of antonyms are there？

The term“antonymy〞is used for oppositions of meaning；words that stand opposite in meaning are called“antonyms〞，or opposites，which fall in there categories1〕gradable antonyms〔e.g，good-bad〕；〔2〕plementary antonyms〔e.g.，single-mar-ried〕；〔3〕

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relational antonyms〔e.g.，buy-sell〕。

1.70.What is hyponymy？What is a hyponym？What is superordinate？

“Hyponymy〞involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion.It is a matter of class membership.That is to say，when X id a kind of Y，the lower term X is the“hyponym〞，and the upper term Y is the“superordinate〞.Two or more hyponyms sharing the same one superordinate are called“co-hyponyms〞.For example，“flower〞is the superordinate of“tulip〞，“violet〞and“rose〞，which are the co-hyponyms of“flower〞。

自考“英语语言学〞资料〔8〕

1.71.What is polysemy？What is homonymy？

“Polysemy〞refers to the semantic phenomenon that a word may have than one meaning.For example，“negative〞，means〔1〕a statement saying or meaning“no〞，〔2〕a refusal or denial，〔3〕one of the following words and expressions： no，not，nothing，never，not at all，etc.，〔4〕 a negative photograph or film.But we can sometimes hardly tell if a form has several meanings or it is a different word taking this form；hence the difference between polysemy and homonymy. 1.72.What is entailment？

“Entailment〞can be illustrated by the following two sentences，with Sentence A entailing Sentence B： A：He married a blonde heiress. B：He married a blonde.

In terms of truth value，the following relationships exist between these two sentences〔1〕

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When A is true，B is necessarily true；〔2〕When B is false，too；〔3〕when A is false，B may be true or false ；〔4〕When B is true，A may be true or false.Entailment is basically a semantic relation or logical implication，but we have to assume co-reference of“He〞in sentence A and sentence B，before we have A entail B. 1.73.What is presupposition？

Similar to entailment，“presupposition〞is a semantic relationship or logical connection.The above-mentioned“When phrase No.1〞is also true with presupposition.For example： A：The girl he married was an heiress. B：He married a girl.

But there is an important difference： Presupposition is not subject to negation，i.e.，when A is false，B is still true.Other statements about the truth value in presupposition are〔1〕When B is true，A can either be true or false；〔2〕When B is false，A has no truth value at all.Presupposition does not have to be found between two propositions.An example in point is ：“ When did you stop beating your wife？〞This presupposes that he has been beating his wife. 1.74.What is ponential analysis？

“ponential analysis〞defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic ponents.For example，we may“clip〞the following words“Man〞，“Woman〞，“Boy〞and“Girl〞so that we have only separate parts of them. Man：+Human+Adult+Male Woman：+Human+Adult-Male

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Boy：+Human-Adult+Male Girl：+Huamn-Adult-Male

1.75.What is predication analysis？What is a one-place predicate？What is a two-place predicate？What is a no-place predicate？What are down-graded predications？ “Predication analysis〞is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.“Predication〞is usually considered an important mon category shared by propositions，questions，mands，etc.Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents：argument〔logical participant〕and predicate 〔relation element〕.The“predicate〞is the major or pivotal element governing the argument.We may now distinguish a“two-place predicate〞〔which governs two arguments，e.g.subject and object〕，a“one-place predicate〞〔which governs one argument，i.e.，subject〕and a“no-place predicate〞that has simply no argument〔no real subject or object〕。 1.76.What is a logical operator？

〔1〕“Logical operator 〞make only one kind of the“logical factors〞or“logical means〞，others being“definiteness〞，“ coreference 〞，“tense〞and“time〞，since predication is not the whole of a sentence or proposition.All these factors play a part in prepositional actualization of the predication ——the pining of a predication down a claim about reality.

〔2〕Example of logical operators are“not〞，“and〞，“or〞，“some〞，“if〞，“false〞，etc.The term“logical operation〞reflects the fact that these meaning elements are often thought of as performing operations，controlling elements of the semantic system，so to speak.

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1.77.Why is writing important？Why is speech considered prior to writing？

〔1〕Language can take the form of speech or writing，the former using sound as medium and the latter employing visual symbols.No one could tell when mankind first spoke;nor could people tell when mankind developed the first writing. A writing system consists of a graphemes plus characteristic features of their use，resulting in the diversion of the writing forms；word writing，syllabic writing and sound writing.

〔2〕It is widely considered that speech is the primary medium，and writing the secondary medium.But this parative diminution does not mean that writing is unimportant.With the shot-lived memory and the finite capacity of information storing，writing is used，partly for pensation and partly for better munication.We cannot trust the negotiation counterpart so we turn to the writing and signing of an agreement.Writing leads people to the acme of science，study and research，and to the ultimate joy of literature

1.78.What is a pictogram？What is an ideogram？

〔1〕A“pictogram〞refers to an inscription representing the features of a physical object.The Hebrew and the Chinese orthography still reflects traces of their pictorial origin.For instance，the letter“a〞〔aleph〕imitates the head of an ox and the letter“b〞〔beth〕imitates a horse.And“niú〞，“mǎ〞，“hǔ〞and hundreds more of Chinese words derived from，and still keep the pictorial resemblance to，the shapes of the things or objects.

〔2〕The advantage of pictograms is that they can be easily understood by anyone.That explains why international road signs and public-toilet signs make a wide

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use of them.

〔3〕An“ideogram〞means an idea picture or idea writing.In order to express the attribute of an object or concepts associated with it，the pictogram's meaning had to be extended.For instance，a picture of the sun does not necessarily represent the object itself，but connotes“warmth〞，“heat〞，“light〞，“daytime〞，etc.In spite of its disadvantages，the later form of ideograms turned out to be linguistic symbols，symbols for the sounds of these objects.The process is called the“Rebus Principle〞indicating that writing is like a riddle posed of words or syllables depicted by symbols or pictures that suggest the sound of the words or syllables they represent.

1.79.What is word writing？What is sound writing？What is syllabic writing？

〔1〕Word writing refers to the writing system based on ideograms and/or pictograms，like Chinese 〔see 1.78〕。“Sound writing 〞or“alphabetic writing〞，which dominates the world，derived form the Latin alphabet with mild adjustments.Most of the European alphabets belong to the sound writing system，e.g.，Spanish，German，French，English，etc.

〔2〕“Syllabic writing〞is a word-syllabus writing，developed by the Egyptians.Japanese is a typical syllabic-writing language，though derived from Chinese，a Sino-Tibetan language.The Japanese modified the Chinese characters they had borrowed from ancient China so that the Japanese syllables〔to the number of fifty〕 were each represented，either by what is called“hiragana〞or by what is name“katakana〞。

1.80.What is an alphabet？What is a syllabary？

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An“alphabet〞refers to the letters or signs representing speech sounds used in writing a language，arranged in a conventional order.A“syllabary〞refers to a set or table or system of written characters representing syllables rather than individual sounds. 自考“英语语言学〞资料〔9〕

1.81.What is a grapheme？What is orthography？

〔1〕A“grapheme〞is the minimal constructive unit in the writing system of a language.The English grapheme A is represented by A，α，a etc.

〔2〕Orthography means correct spelling，spelling rules or attempts to improve spelling.

1.82.What is reference？

“Reference〞，as far as writing is concerned，means that in a sound writing system the graphemes and the phonemes are expected to build up and to keep up co-reference.For instance，the Reference of the English grapheme B generally is“b〞and that of the grapheme X is“ks〞.The problem with reference is that more than one phoneme can be represented by one single letter or grapheme.The grapheme O，for example，can represent its its different corresponding phonemes as in：so []，money []，together []，sob [].

For reference used in the sense of“sense〞or“meaning〞，place refer back to 1.64. 1.83.What is affixation，conversion and pounding？

〔1〕“Affixation〞is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base 〔root or stem〕.It has been the oldest and the most productive word-formation method in the English language and some other European

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languages.“Prefixation〞means addition of a prefix to make a new word，while“suffixation〞means adding a suffix to a word.The word“unfaithful〞is result of both prefixation and suffixation.

〔2〕“Conversion〞〔called sometimes“full conversion〞〕 is a word-formation process by which a word is altered from one part of speech into another without the addition 〔or deletion〕 of any morpheme.“Partial conversion〞is also alteration when a word of one word-class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word-class，e.g.，“ the wealthy〞〔=wealthy people〕。

〔3〕“pounding〞is so plex a word-formation process as far as English is concerned that there is no formal criterion that can be used for the definition of it，though it may mean simply that two words or more e together used as one lexical item，like“dustbin〞。

1.84.What is blending，abbreviation and back formation？

〔1〕“Blending〞is a relatively plex form of pounding in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root，or by joining the initial parts of the two roots，e.g.，smog→smoke+fog，boatel→boat+hotel，etc.

〔2〕“Abbreviation〞，also called in some cases“clipping〞，means that a word that seems unnecessarily long is shortened，usually by clipping either the front or the back part of it，e.g.，telephone→phone，professor→prof.，etc.

Broadly speaking，abbreviation includes acronyms that are made up from the first letters of the long name of an organization，e.g.，World Bank→WB，European Economic

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munity→EEC，etc.Other examples of acronyms can be found with terminologies，to be read like one word，e.g.，radio detecting and ranging→radar [].Test of English as a Foreign Language→TOEFL []，etc.

〔3〕“Back-formation〞refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by detecting an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.It is a special kind of metanalyais，bined with analogical creation 〔see 1.85〕，e.g.，editor→edit，enthusiasm→enthuse，etc. 1.85.What is analogical creation？What is borrowing？

The process of“analogical creation〞，as one of the English tendencies in English word-formation，refers to the phenomenon that a new word or a new phrase is coined by analogy between a newly created one and an existing one.For example，“marathon〞appeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modern English created such words as“telethon〞，“talkthon〞，etc.Analogy may create single words〔e.g.，sunrise-moonrise，earthrise，etc.；earthquake-starquake，youthquake，etc.〕 and phrases〔 e.g.，environmental pollution-sound pollution，air pollution，cultural pollution，etc.〕。 “Borrowing〞means the English language borrowed words from foreign languages，which fall in four categories： aliens，denizens，translation-loans and semantic borrowings.

“Aliens〞are foreign loans that still keep their alien shapes，i.e.，morphological and phonological features，e.g.，“elite〞，“coup détat〞，“coupé〞，etc.〔from French〕。“Deniens〞，also foreign words，have transformed their foreign appearance，i.e.，they have been Angolcized 〔or Americanized〕，e.g.，“get〞〔a Scandinavian borrowing〕，

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“theater〞〔a French loan〕，etc.“Hybrids〞are also denizens，because they are words made up of two parts both from foreign soil，such as“sociology〞〔“socio-〞from French and –logy from Greek〕。

“Translation-loans〞are words imported by way of translation，e.g.，“black humor〞from French〔“humor noir〞〕，“found object〞form French ，too 〔“object trouve〞〕，etc.Finally，semantic borrowings have acquired new meaning under the influence of language or languages other than the source tongue.For example，“gift〞mean“the price of a wife 〞in Old English 〔450-1150AD〕，and after the semantic borrowing of the meaning of“gift or present〞of the Scandinavian term“gipt〞，it meant and still means“gift〞in the modern sense of it. 1.86.What is assimilation，dissimilation and metathesis？

〔1〕“Assimilation〞refers to change of a sound as the result of the influence of an adjacent sound，which is called“contact〞or“contiguous〞assimilation.The assimitative processes at word in language could be explained by the“theory of least effort〞，i.e.，in speaking we tend to exert as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds.Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often.In expressions such as“immobile〞，“illegal〞，etc.，the negative prefixes should be or have been“in-〞etymologically.

〔2〕“Dissimilation〞，opposite of assimilation，is the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another sound，so that the sounds bee less alike than expected.As there are two[r] sounds in the Latin word“peregrines〞，for instance，the first segment had to dissimilate into[l]，hence the English word“pilgrim〞

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〔3〕“Metathesis〞is a process involving an alteration in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had originally been a performance error，which was overlooked and accepted by the speech munity.For instance，the word“bird〞was“bird〞in Old English.The word“ask〞used to be pronounced [ask] in Old English，as still occurs in some English dialects.

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