Brief Introduction on Chinese English Translation

Brief Introduction on Chinese English Translation

汉译英工具书

* 《新世纪汉英大词典》，惠宇主编，外语教学与研究出版社 * 《汉英词典》，商务印书馆 * 《现代汉语词典》，商务印书馆

Differences of Chinese and English Culture

汉英翻译与文化

Examples of translating cultural vacancy 她们妯娌吵嘴，不巧被我撞见了。

I chanced to be present when the sisters-in-law were having a quarrel. 好不容易才说服她，照我的想法办。

With some difficulty I brought her to my way of thinking. 对人太苛求，没有什么道理，自己也容易失望。

You have little cause to make excessive demands from others and make yourself disappointed in return. 酒不醉人人自醉。

It is not the wine that intoxicates but the drinker who gets himself drunk. 人到醉时方觉醒，醒时难得醉时清。

It is not until one gets drunk that he gets sober and it is difficult for him to get as sober as he gets drunk.

Definition on Culture “Culture consists of all the shared products of human society”(Robertson, 1981)文化包括人类社会共享的产物。 1 Classification of culture

物质文化 制度文化 行为文化 精神文化

2 Comparison on discrepancies of culture

从性质上分, 中国文化属于人文文化，西方文化属于学文化。在心理文化方面，人

文文化“重人论、轻器物，价值取向以道德为本位。重综合、轻分析。重意会、轻言传。崇尚群体意识，强调同一性。追求人和自然的和谐，把人和自然看成浑然一体

科学文化“重物质、轻人论，价值取向以功利为本位。重分析、轻总和。重概念、忌笼统、强调人权，主张个人至上，重视特殊的辨识。强调人与自然的对立，人对自然的索取。”

3 features of Chinese culture

* 人文性 包容性 伦理性 和谐性

毛笔是中国的传统书写工具。笔尖由羊毛、黄鼬毛或兔毛制成。先要精心选择毫毛，将一端修剪成尖的形状，然后将另一端固定在竹子或木制的笔管上。毛笔的毫毛既软又有弹性。笔头外部的毫毛稍短，使它更易吸收墨汁。尖端用较长的毛，以形成笔尖，这样可以轻易地写出点或线的形状。 Brush

The brush is the traditional writing tool. Its tip is made of soft hairs from a sheep, weasel or rabbit. The carefully selected hairs are tied together, trimmed into a tapering shape and fixed onto one end of a bamboo or wooden holder.

The hair is both soft and elastic. The outer layer of the brush are shorter, making it easier to absorb ink. The tip end has longer hairs which come to a tiny point, so that both wrinkle dotting and line drawing can be done easily.

4 Cultural factors in C-E translation

Whether the cultural factors should be maintained or not depend on the following two elements:

1）The character of the text

忙什么呢？上班去啊？ Hello! Morning! 2.）The context 有一位歌手，有一次她唱完了歌，竟没有一个人鼓掌。于是她在开会的时候说：“掌声究竟能说明什么问题？难道掌声是美？是艺术？是黄金？掌声到底卖几分钱一斤？” 王蒙《常胜的歌手》

Once a singer finished her performance without receiving any applause from the audience. Afterwards she remarked at a meeting, “What does applause mean? Is it beauty, art, or gold? How much is it worth after all?”

One day, a singer sang for the audience. After she finished , nobody applauded. Thereupon, she said at a meeting, “What possibly can applause mean? Does it mean beauty? Art? Or gold? How much is one burst of clapping worth? “

If the cultural factors should not be maintained, the translator can only translate in a liberal way.

金陵回春，古城新生

I. This old city was instilled with a new life.

II. Spring came back to Jinling (old name of Nanjing) and this ancient city was

revitalized. Note：

I 不保留鲜明的比喻形象，仅译“意”，但行文流畅，表达明快，文字简洁

II 译文色彩丰富，文化信息含量高。但若全文都是这一类充满比喻的表达和成语，全部采用这样的译法会使文章过于华丽矫饰。

If the cultural factors should be maintained Two principles:

1 The principle of faithfulness (as close as the original as possible) message cultural color

e.g. （in exclamation）老天爷啊！ Oh, my god! 2. The principle of acceptability

readability cultural tolerance

塔 杭州六和塔Six Harmonies Pagoda 是佛塔 西安大雁塔 Big Wild Goose Pagoda

北海公园白塔 藏式佛塔，喇嘛塔 White Dagoba)

伦敦塔 London Tower

Translating implied cultural factors

回头人【寡妇】出嫁哭喊的也有，说要寻死觅活的也有，抬到男家闹得拜不成天地的也有，连花烛都砸了的也有。

Some widows sob and shout when they remarry; some threaten to kill themselves; some refuse to bow to heaven and earth after they‟ve been carried to the man‟s house; some smash the wedding candlesticks. Discuss:

What cultural factors are missing?

回头人【寡妇】出嫁哭喊的也有，说要寻死觅活的也有，抬到男家闹得拜不成天地的也有，连花烛都砸了的也有。

Some widows sob and shout when they are forced to remarry; some threaten to kill themselves; some refuse to go through with the wedding ceremony after they‟ve been carried to the man‟s house; some even smash wedding candlesticks.

1999年该地区开始治理整顿。治理整顿，我是赞成的，而且确实需要。 What information is implied in the previous sentence?

From 1999, we began to drive to improve the economic environment and rectify the economic order in that district, which I endorsed since it was indeed necessary. 范进迎了出去，只见那张乡绅下了轿进来，头戴纱帽，身穿葵花色圆领 …

Fan Jin went out to welcome the visitor, who was one of the local gentry, and Mr. Chang alighted from the chair and came in. He was wearing an official‟s gauze cap, sun-flower-colored gown…

Examples of cultural factors and translation 陋室空堂，当年笏满床。(曹雪芹）

A: Mean huts and empty halls, Where emblems of nobility once hung. (杨宪益) B: Mean hovels and abandoned halls, Where courtiers once paid daily calls. (Hawkes) analysis

笏:中国古代礼仪规定，官员百姓不得直视君王，因此官员上朝面君时往往带上一块用竹、玉或象牙做成的细长的板子，可以在上面记事. 在杨的笔下，笏不是笏，而是显示高官厚禄的“徽章”。读者便不必去无谓地猜测自己文化中没有的物质，而抓住这一特定的物质所揭示的寓意，这不是事半功倍吗？为了显示贾家的位高权重，霍克斯从其他官员日日拜访贾家来间接告诉读者，贾家非同一般。真是神来之笔。

民俗文化异常丰富表达方式的翻译

俗语说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”

I. Remember the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.” (Yang)

II. “You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days. ”(Hawkes) analysis

杨宪益在处理本句时使用了直译法,和霍克斯使用归化译法相比,虽然也可以将汉语中的慷慨表现出来,但明显不如后者生动形象。归化翻译的正确恰当应用使本句让译文读者更加易于接受了。

The relations of culture, language and translation 中国是块肥肉，谁都想吃。

译文1：China is a piece of fat meat and everyone wants to eat it. 译文2：China is an attractive piece of meat coveted by all. Culture and translation 妹妹们，该出脚时就出脚!

Younger sisters, when you are supposed to kick, please kick hard! Different customs 天生有福

俄国人：“穿着衬衣生下来的”

英国人：“生来嘴里就含着一把银勺”（born with a silver spoon in one‟s mouth） 德国人：“梳好了头才出世的” Different customs

“一箭双雕”或 “一举两得” 法语：“一块石头打两处”

英文：“一石打死二鸟”（to kill two birds with one stone) 俄语：“一枪打死两只兔子” 德语：“一个拍子打两只苍蝇” 制度、信仰和世界观不同

贾宝玉神游太虚境，警幻仙曲演红楼梦。 Jiao Baoyu visits the Land of Illusion;

And the fairy Disenchantment performs the Dream of Golden Days.

<红楼梦>第五回，Hawkes采用的版本是1792年的“程本”，而杨宪益的版本为1760年的“脂本”

灵石迷性难解仙机，警幻多情秘垂淫训

The Spiritual Stone Is Too Bemused to Grasp the Fairy‟s Riddles

The Goddess of Disenchantment in Her Kindness Secretly Expounds on Love 制度、信仰和世界观不同

贾宝玉品茶栊翠庵，刘姥姥醉窝怡红院。

I. Jia Baoyu tastes some superior tea at Green Bower Hermitage;

And Grannie Liu samples the sleeping accommodation at Green Delights. (Hawkes) II. Baoyu Sips Tea in Green Lattice Nunnery

Granny Liu Succumbs to Wine in Happy Red Court [Yang Xianyi]

Bower: 亭子，凉亭 hermitage隐士的住处，茅庐

Lattice （建筑）格构 nunnery 尼姑庵 succumb屈从

Differences on ways of communication

你辛苦了 You must have had a tiring journey. You must be tired from a long trip? Well done! That was a hard job. You‟ve got a hard job.

ON translation approaches in translating cultural factors * Literal translation

来得容易，去得快 Easy come, easy go.

雪中送炭 to offer fuel in snowy weather Literal translation

一人得道，鸡犬升天 even the dog swaggers when its master win favor “瓜田李下” “瓜田不纳履，李下不整冠”

Neither adjust your shoe in a melon patch，nor your hat under a plum tree. Free translation

到什么山，唱什么When in Rome，do as the Romans do. 望子成龙 to expect one‟s son to become an outstanding personage 天有不测风云 Something unexpected may happen any time.

你说别人坏话，他也会说你的坏活。The dog that will fetch a bone will carry a bone 我们常吵吵闹闹,但仍很相爱。We still love each other very much,but we fight like cat and dog.

前事不忘，后事之师。

* Past experiences, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future.

* Lessons learned from the past can serve as a guide in the future. 《东西方文明之根本差异》（李大钊）

“东西方文明有根本不同之点，即东洋文化主静，西方文明主动是也。……一为自然的，一为人为的；一为安息的，一为战争的；一为消极的，一为积极的；一为依赖的，一为独立的；一为苟安的，一为实进的；一为因袭的，一为创造的；一为保守的，一为进步的；一为直觉的，一为理智的；一为空想的，一为体验的；一为艺术的，一为科学的；一为精神的，一为物质的；一为灵的，一为肉的；一为向天的，一为立地的；一为自然支配的，一为人间征服自然……” Close relation of language and culture

语言是文化的一部分，文化又无时无刻影响着语言 语言是文化的载体，又是文化的写照

语言文字当中，处处都打有文化的烙印，语言活动过程中，时时可觅见文化的踪迹

汉英词汇、句法对比

comparison on the diction and sentences

1 我软化了，我被母亲那颗永远充满了爱而又从来缺少爱的心软化了。我终于决定按照母亲的愿望，报考中文系。

I weakened, softened by my mother‟s ever-lasting love that had never been reciprocated with love. In the end, I decided to enroll in the Chinese Department, following my mother‟s wish. 2 二十岁的时候，我想出名要趁早，一个人到了三十岁还籍籍无名那还活个什么劲儿呀？三十岁之后，名是不指望了，只是希望在四十岁的时候能像我的老板一样有钱。

At the age of twenty, it‟s better to be famous before it‟s too late, I believed. What would be the spice of life for a person deserted by fame when approaching thirty?

After thirty, fame seems still beyond reach, yet being as rich as my boss at forty becomes my new dream.

3 他并不满足于呼吁消除贫苦、愚昧和疾病，他号召摧毁那个造成这一切罪恶的制度。

He was not to appeal for the end of poverty and ignorance and disease; he called for the destruction of the system which was responsible for these evils. 4 他绝望了，正在此时，他见到远方的帆影，有了绝处逢生的希望。

He gave up all the hope when the appearance of a distant sail raised his hope of rescue.

5 越来越多的老人接受了子孙们对于迪斯科舞和爵士音乐所表现出来的日益浓厚的兴趣这个事实。

It seems that there is a growing acceptance by the old generation of their children and their grand children‟s increasing interest in disco and jazz. 6 他通晓多种不常使用的外国语，这使我们大家感到惊讶。 His familiarity with many rarely used languages surprised us all. 7 物不如新，人不如旧。

Everything is good when new, but friends when old. examples

1林则徐认为，要成功地禁止鸦片买卖，就得首先把鸦片销毁。

Lin Zexu believed that a successful ban of the trade in opium must be preceded by the destruction of the drug itself.

2 他读书时不加选择。He is indiscriminate in reading.

3 你得喝几口水，把药丸吞下去。You have to wash the pill down with sips of water. 4 上下班他一般坐地铁。 He usually rides subways to and from work. 5 有一个有力的根据足以推定他们所讲的是真实的。

There is a strong presumption in favor of the truthfulness of their statement. 6 我倒了一杯茶给他喝。 I offered him a cup of tea. 7 他拿着枪，绕着屋子巡走.He walked around the house with a gun. 8 游行的人拿着鲜花和彩旗在街道上行进。

The paraders marched in the street, carrying flowers and banners in their hands. 9 实现理想境界要靠辛勤劳动。 To translate ideals into reality needs hard work. 10 解决问题的最好办法是进行调查研究

The best way to solve the problem is to conduct investigations. （动词词组作定语、表语）

词类的标志，首先是构词词尾

英语许多词从词形就可猜出什么词。（屈折性） -ment, -tion-, -ty, -er / or, -ism, -ist, -ology, -ness名词

-ful, --al, -ative 形容词 -en, -fy,- ize动词 -ly副词 汉语的所谓词头、词尾大体两类： 一是传统的，

阿- 、老- 、初、-子、-头、-儿。

二是新兴的，主要是翻译英语一直进来的，

“-性”、－化、―度、－派、－家、－师、－手、反－、多－、可－、双－、准－、亲－、超－、不－、非－、等等。

英语还有动词不定式的记号to和冠词, 汉语则不同。 老吾老， 以及人之老； 幼吾幼， 以及人之幼。 春风风人， 夏雨雨人。 君君，臣臣，父父，子子。

词汇衔接 lexical cohesion

词汇衔接指通过词的重复、同义、反义、上下义、互补、同现等词汇间的语义关系来实现语篇连贯。

词的反复repetition 搭配collocation

词的反复指使用相同的词、同义词或近义词，上义词super-ordinate/ general words和下义词subordinate/ specific words等。 purpose

运用这些词可以产生很强的粘合力，形成一张“词汇网”(lexicon network), 赋予语篇连贯性。 分为两大类：

1. 复现 (reiteration) 2. 同现 (collocation)

1. 复现（同词重复或异词重复）repetition 1) 原词复现

2) 同义词或近义词复现 （synonyms & antonyms) 3) 上义词和下义词 复现

(superordinate & subordinate) 概括词 general word 具体词 specific word

汉语中词的复现，即重复运用某一词的情况很多，翻译时应注意适当调整。

老金奔过去一看，原来是一只不到500克中的羽毛刚长齐的猫头鹰。 他把猫头鹰小心翼翼装进笼子里，然后骑自行车送往离家7.5 公里的城区林业局。 林业局的工作人员把猫头鹰放归大自然。

Lao Jin hastened over and found it was a young fledgling owl no more than 500 grams in weight. He picked the bird up and placed it into a cage with much care. Then he cycled the bird all the way to the Municipal Forestry Bureau, 7.5 kilometers off his home. There the staff members set the creature free into the embrace of the forest.

乡镇工业园区已经成为我市乡镇企业“二次创业”的有效载体，极大地改善了企业的发展环境。目前已有3772家企业进驻园区。

Township industrial zones provide solid vehicles for the city‟s enterprises in running new businesses and greatly improve the setting for the development of such entities. So far, 3772 establishments have found home in these quarters. 同义词和近义词复现

孔乙己便涨红了脸，额头上的青筋条条绽出，争辩道：“窃书不能算偷……窃书……读书人的事，能算偷么？”

At that Kong Yiji would flush, the veins on his forehead standing out as he protested, “ Taking books can‟t be counted as stealing …Taking books … for a scholar … can‟t be counted as stealing.”

王治奎：建议将“窃”与“偷”这对同现词分别译作“stealing” 和 “theft”， 以充分传达其概念的同一性。修辞效果更好。充分表现了孔乙己违反同一律，窘迫至极、强词夺理的心态。 General word

Halliday & Hasan 的书中提到的general word（范畴词category word、泛指词、概括词） 也称作“准实义词”。其特点是语义上空、泛、抽象， 其所指或含义需借助上下文推断。

由于这种词的所指需依赖上下文， 因此它们和指示代词及人称代词一样， 具有所指性，可以构成篇章的整体语义结构和逻辑框架，创建语篇连贯。这类词 数量多，使用普遍。 如 problem, situation, concern, group, plan, scheme, practice, move, operation, endeavor等。

汉译英时，在适当地方添加general word, 有助于译出语义连贯、逻辑严密、 条理清楚的文字。 Exercises:

新年的漱口水， 洗脸水不可到落地，而倒入预先准备好的水盆里，当天也不扫地，谓之“积财”。

According to customs, a basin is especially reserved for water from tooth brushing and warship, for such water is not allowed to be splashed on the ground. Nor is the floor to be cleaned on the day. These taboos are intended for “fortune-saving.”

五年后，宁波港将建成国际深水枢纽港。据介绍，将宁波港建成国际深水枢纽港是宁波市“新世纪工程” 的第一项任务。

In 5 years, Ningbo port is to be turned into a deep-water harbor thoroughfare for

international purposes along China‟s coast. Informed people say this engagement has become the top priority of Ningbo‟s New Century Project. 2. 同现关系 collocation

Halliday & Hasan 认为：同现关系指词汇在语篇中共同出现的倾向性(co-occurrence tendency) 。

在语篇中，围绕着一定的话题，一定的词往往同时出现，而其他一些词就不大可能出现或根本不会出现。

词汇的同现关系包括：反义关系、互补关系、局部-整体关系、搭配关系等。 组合搭配

有些在意义上相互联系的词语常常同时出现在同一语篇中，这些词语属于同一个词汇套，形成了词汇链(lexicon chain), 一个词汇套的词语倾向于在同一语篇中搭配出现，具有较强的衔接力。

自然搭配

主语和谓语的搭配 动词和名词的搭配 英语短语动词的动词与介词的搭配 名词与介词的搭配

我爱花，所以也爱养花。我可还没成为养花专家， 因为没有工夫去做研究和试验。我只把养花当作生活中的一种乐趣，花开得大小好坏都不计较， 只要开花，我就高兴。在我的小院中，到夏天，满是花草，小猫儿们只好上房去玩耍，地上没有它们的运动场。花虽多，但无奇花异草。珍贵的花草不易养活，看着一棵好花生病欲死是件难过的事。我不愿时时落泪。 （老舍）

I love flowers, which leads to my interest in growing them. However, I have not become an expert in growing flowers, because I don‟t have enough time to make researches and experiments. I only regard it as a kind of pleasure in life. It doesn‟t matter whether the flowers bloom big or small, bad or good, I‟m content as long as they bloom.

When summer comes, my little yard is covered with flowers, so there is no playground for the cats, who, therefore, have to play on the roof. Many as the flowers are, there are no exotic ones. Exotic flowers can‟t survive easily. It‟s very sad to see a beautiful flower get ill and dying. And I don‟t want to shed my tears from time to time.

汉语语法呈隐含性 (covertness) 缺少严格意义的形式变化；汉语有语法，但隐含在语言内部，不是通过形式（form）

或形态(morphology)来表示语言成分之间的关系， 而是让语义本身来体现这种关系。

英语语法呈外显性 (overtness) 例如有动词的变化等 语法中的形态标志 时：你去我也去。

If you go, I‟ll go too. ( 将来时) 我到家时天已黑了。 It was already dark when I arrived home. ( 过去时) 态：杯子打破了。The glass was broken.

据说他来过。I was told that he had been here. 语气：你死了， 我去做和尚。

If you should die, I would go and be a monk. Chinese sentences: (parataxis)语义型或意合型

依仗意义，即内在的逻辑关系组织语言的手段。“以意统形”.指词语或语句间的连接主要凭借语义或语句间的逻辑关系来实现. English sentences: (hypotaxis） 语法型或形合型

依仗形式（包括词的形态变化，词汇的衔接等）将语言符号由“散”（个体的词）到“集” （词组乃至语篇）的语言组织手段.指词语或语句间的连接主要依仗连接词或语言形态手段来实现 ---王力《中国语法理论》 examples

知之为知之，不知为不知，是知也。（孔子《论语》）

When you know a thing, to hold that you know it, and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it—this is knowledge.（James Legge译）

只有四婶，因为后来雇用的女工，大抵非懒即馋，或者馋而且懒，左右不如意，所

以也还提起祥林嫂。

Only my aunt, because the maids taken on afterwards turned out to be lazy or greedy, or both, none of them satisfied her, still spoke of Xianglin‟s Wife.

My aunt was the only one who still spoke of Xianglin‟s Wife. This was because most of the maids taken on afterwards turned out to be lazy or greedy, or both, none of them giving satisfaction. （杨宪益、戴乃迭译） Key points:

英语句子的谓语只有动词才能充当。作谓语的动词对句子其他成分的形式和句子的结构有很大的影响。

汉语的谓语也是句子中非常重要的成分，但是汉语的谓语除了用动词充当，还可以用形容词、名词或其他词语充当。 译文主语的选择

原文：这件事你不用操心。

1： This you don‟t need to worry. 2: You don‟t need to worry about this.

3. This is not something you need to worry about. 4. It is unnecessary for you to worry about this. 5. There is no need to worry about this.

我的头疼得要命

My head aches badly. My head is killing me. I have a terrible headache. I have a splitting headache. I have a migraine.

中国的人均农业土地面积比不上世界上其它许多国家

1. China‟s per capita agricultural land cannot compare with that of many other countries in the world.

2. In its amount of agricultural land per capita, China compares unfavorably with many other countries.

3. China compares unfavorably with many other countries in terms of per capita agricultural land. 懒惰的人不会成功

A lazy person will never succeed.

Laziness makes it impossible for one to succeed. Laziness makes success impossible.

这位母亲很为有个聪明漂亮的女儿而骄傲.

The mother is very proud to have an intelligent and pretty daughter.

The intelligence and beauty of the daughter makes her mother very proud. 原因和结果

生活中既有悲剧，文学作品就可以写悲剧。

Tragedies can be written in literature since there is tragedy in life.

结论和分析

不管是南非政府耍政治花招和策略上的拖延手段，还是提出显然旨在拖延问题解决的建议，都不能永远阻挡南部非洲问题的解决。

The solution to the problem of Southern Africa cannot remain forever hostage to the political maneuvers and tactical delays by South Africa nor to its transparent proposals aimed at procrastination and the postponement of the solution. 假设和前提

小国人民敢于起来斗争，敢于拿起武器，掌握自己国家的命运，就一定能够战胜大国的侵略。

The people of a small country can certainly defeat aggression by a big country, if only they dare to rise in struggle, dare to take up arms and grasp in their own hands the destiny of their own country. 汉英语体风格对比 1. 在词汇上的表现

英语有丰富的同义词 *英语本族词(native words) *外来词(loan words)

*习语同义词(synonymous idioms) Brave: (Italian) 坚定刚毅

Bold: (old English)勇猛，甚至肆无忌惮 Courageous: (French)坚强不屈的性格

Valiant: (Latin)(雅literary）用于人(very brave, especially in a difficult situation)

Valorous: (Latin) (雅literary）用于人、事迹或技艺(full of valor---great courage, especially in war)

Comments

“Words are seldom exactly synonymous.” ---Samuel Johnson

“English is among the easiest languages to speak badly, but the most difficult to use well.” ---C.L. Wren British Linguis 2. 在句法上的表现 汉语句式

结构上：单句和复句

其他： 主谓句、无主句、流水句、主题句 散句： 长句、短句

整句： 对偶句、排比句、顶真句、回环句

文体功能：整句多见于书面体；单句和 短句则多用于口语体。 英语句式

结构上：简单句（simple sentence)

并列句 (compound sentence) 复合句 (complex sentence) 长度上：长句和短句

修辞上： 松散句 (loose sentence)

平衡句 (balanced sentence) 圆周句 (periodic sentence)

完整句

片语句 (fragment sentence) 主谓先后上：正装句、到装句 英语句子的文体功能

1.简单句、短句、松散句:多见于口语，给人自由、随意的感觉。

2.复合句、长句：多用于阐述复杂的的思想，适用于逻辑严密、语意复杂的论证文体。

3. 平衡句、圆周句：节奏感强、琅琅上口、有气势，多见于演说类等具有感染力的文体。

篇章语体对比 style and discourse

王治奎：事务文体、科技文体、政论文体和文艺文体

王宏印：应用文体、科技文体、论述文体、新闻文体和艺术文体

刘宓庆：新闻报刊、论述文体、公文文体、描述及叙述文体、科技文体 和应用文体 篇章 discourse

应用文体：广告、启事、通知、通告、契约、合同、公函、私信 科技文体：科学论著、实验报告、情报资料、设备和产品说明 论述文体：社会科学论著、政治文献、演说报告等

新闻文体：新闻报道、新闻电讯、新闻评论、新闻特写等 艺术文体：主要指文学作品（小说、散文、 诗歌、戏剧等） 应用文体要求： 译文格式正确，内容简明，语言朴实

科技文体要求： 术语正确，数据、公式、图表, 完整无误，语言明晰无歧义 论述文体要求: 立场、观点、态度准确无误，逻辑清晰，语言庄重 新闻文体要求: 格式正确,语言得体,行文流畅 艺术文体要求: 准确达意, 流畅生动, 风貌尽出 What is text?

篇章（text）是表达整体概念的语义单位。篇章是语言在交际中，特别是在书面交际中的对象和理想单位。它不只是一连串句子和段落的集合，而是一个结构完整、功能明确的语义统一体。（陈宏薇）

篇章翻译是指高于句子层次或句以上的语言单位的翻译。（王治奎）

语篇指不完全受句子语法约束的在一定语境下表示完整意义的自然语言。它具有形式和逻辑的一致性。语篇并非是互不关联的句子的简单堆积，而是一些意义相联系的句子为达到一定交际亩的，通过各种衔接手段而实现的有机结合。因此语篇衔接手段自然成为篇章研究的重要对象之一。

衔接性和连贯性是篇章最重要的特征。衔接和连贯是当前篇章语言学（textual linguistics）和话语分析(discourse analysis)研究的重点和热点。

英汉语篇在结构形态和逻辑关系上相似时，一般可以采用“临摹”的办法，按照源语

的发展思路，在译语种复制或基本照搬源语行文的建构方式。这种方法称作“逻辑顺组” logic copying）。

由于汉英在语言结构，语篇衔接模式，逻辑层次等方面存在广泛的差异，汉译互译时往往需要进行 “逻辑重组” (logic reshuffling) 语境

广义语境：指对语言交际产生制约的社会的、自然的、交际者本身的各种各样的因素，也称为“情境语境” (situational context) 或 “超语言语境”（extralinguistic

context）.涉及到“话语的场”field of discourse(即语言活动的主题), “话语的式”mode of discourse（即语言活动的方式）和“话语的旨”tenor of discourse(即语言活动双方的地位关系)，主要体现为同语言环境密切相关的社会因素。

狭义语境：指交际过程中某一话语结构表达特定意义时所依赖的各种表现为言辞的上下文，它既包括书面语中的上下文，又包括口语中的前言后语所限定的环境。 衔接与连贯 (cohesion and coherence )

Characteristics: 衔接是篇章的有形网络; 连贯是篇章的无形网络。 Cohesive ties 衔接手段 Cohesion markers 连贯标记 Classification of cohesion

Halliday & Hasan 在Cohesion in English 中将英语的衔接手段分成五大类： 照应 reference 替代 substitution 省略 ellipsis

连接 conjunction

词汇衔接 lexical cohesion Classification of cohesion：

I. 指称衔接（照应） co-reference anaphora II. 结构衔接 structural cohesion III. 词汇衔接 lexical cohesion IV. 语音衔接 phonetic cohesion

修辞与翻译

修辞是提高语言表达效果的手段。翻译工作既注意一般修辞又要注意特殊修辞。

一、用词要贴切 翻译中应特别重视选词，要对原文和译文所用词语在词义的范围、轻重、分寸及色彩方面仔细琢磨，反复推敲，以求译文用词精当、贴切。 说他(赵辛楣)调戏汪太太，把她气坏了。

he said he flirted with Mrs．Wang and got her upset．

把“调戏”译作“flirt with\"，表达不出原文用词的分量，改译为he took liberties with。 词语的重复与精简

汉语喜欢重复，英语崇尚简洁。

汉语的重复作为一种修辞手段有两种作用：一是为了强调，或增添修饰，加强语义。二是为了便于词语搭配，或平衡节奏，增加可读性。英语忌重复，在汉语里习以为常的重复词语到了英语里要么不合逻辑，要么累赘冗长，所以翻译时要有所删削省

略。

example

这是革命的春天，这是人民的春天，这是科学的春天!让我们张开双臂，热烈拥抱这个春天吧! Let us stretch out our arms to embrace the spring, which is one of the revolution，of the people，and of science．

汉语的对比结构常含有重复成分，英译时要适当从简 你要觉得合适就干，不合适就不干。你自个儿看着办吧。

Go ahead if you think the job suits you and don‟t if not．It‟s all up to you to decide. 有时汉语通过词汇重复表示强调，而英语则要借助动词或用代词复指：

我劝是劝过了，但没有用。I did persuade him，without avail． 搭配性重复

汉语中的范畴词也构成一种语义上的重复。范畴词是一些具有概括意义、表示人或事物分类范畴的词语，常用在具体词的后面，对其进行分类总括，以便与其它词语搭配。到了英语里，具体词语直接就能构成搭配关系，原文中的范畴词便成了冗赘。

见到自己的故乡，他想起了童年的情景。

The sight of his native place called back his childhood． 节奏性重复

汉语成语中有许多音韵整齐语意重复的四字对偶词组，翻译时不必亦步亦趋，译出一组的意思就够了：

油嘴滑舌 glib tongue 长嗟短叹 sighing deeply 精疲力竭 exhausted

随波逐流 swim with the stream 发号施 issue orders 土崩瓦 fall apart

描述要生动 叙述要明白晓畅、描写要生动逼真、说明要条理清楚、辩论要充分有力。这里仅以“化静为动”为例，说明翻译时修辞手段的运用。

花坛北面有一株腊梅花，南端是一丛南天竹。(王士菁《鲁迅传》)

A winter plum stood on the northern end of the terrace，and a nandina on the southern end．

山行六七里，渐闻水声潺潺而泄出于两峰之间者，酿泉也。

A walk of two or three miles on those hills brings one within earshot of the sound of falling water, which gushes forth from a ravine known as the Wine-Fountain． (Tr．H．A．Giles)

以上例句中的“有”、“渐闻”等静态描写的词语用“stand”、“bring”等具有动态意义的词语来译，更好地传达了原文生动的描写效果。

在生活越来越富足的今天，越来越多的长辈选择“压岁书”作为送给孩子们的过年礼物。 连日来市里各大书店门庭若市，少儿类图书的销售量直线上升。

Today with more and more people living a better-off life, seniors in the family would

give books to the children as a lunar New Year gift. As a result, in the past few days, people have beating a path to the big bookstores in the city and sales volumes for various children‟s books have increased by large margins.

许多人因此学会了用手势表达简单的日常用语，现在如果有手持纸条的聋哑人前来乘车，问讯处的同志能用哑语回答。

Many staff members have thus learned to put simple daily exchanges into gestures.

People working at the information desk, for example, are able to use the languages to answer inquires from those deaf-mutes who still have slips of paper clutched in their hands.

为此，本市将继续以集装箱运输为主攻方向，开发穿山、大榭和梅山深水岸线。 To accomplish the goal, the city will continue to concentrate its efforts on developing its container shipment and at the same time open up a deep-water shipment route connecting Chuanshan, Daxie and Meishan.

篇章分析（Discourse Analysis)

辨别篇章的文体

把握局部与整体的辨证关系

借助语境理解原文，确定原文的信息、感情和审美价值 汉英翻译变通和补偿手段

adaptation and compensation 1．加注（annotation）

（1）transliteration plus annotation or paraphrase

“气功” qigong（ a system of deep breathing exercises）;

太极拳一taijiquan（a kind of traditional Chinese shadow boxing）． （2）literal translation plus annotation or paraphrase

original:卢信候道：“昨日在尊府，今日我方到这里。你原来在这里做神仙，令我羡杀！”庄征君道：“此间与人世绝远，虽非武陵，亦差不多。 你且在此住些时，只怕再来就要迷路了。（《儒林外史》）

“I went to your honorable house yesterday,” replied Lu, “ and came on here today. You are living like an immortal—how I envy you !” “We are completely cut off from the world here,” said Chuang. “Although this is not Peach Blossom Stream, it comes very close to it. I hope you will pay us a long visit, for next time you may not be able to find the way.”

This was a fairy land described by the poet Tao Yuanming. A fisherman came here by accident; but though he marked the path by which he left, neither he nor others could find the way back again (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) 2 .增益（contextual amplification）

“又问众人道：“当日娥皇女英洒泪竹上成斑……”，

She told the others: “When the Emperor Shun died， his two queens turned into river goddesses and their tears became the spots you find on the bamboos that grow on the banks of the river．” (Hawkes)

In the following situations, contextual may be necessary.

① To achieve grammatical balance or consistence.“白头宫女在，闲坐说玄宗” for the chambermaids, singular or plural?

I. Some white-haired palace Chambermaids are chattering about the dead gone Hsuan chung regime.（林语堂译） “白头宫女在，闲坐说玄宗”

II. One white－haired dame，an Emperor‟s flame， Sits down and tells of bygone hours．（Giles译） ② For clear and natural expression “华清池龙吟榭”

Long Yin Xie (a pavilion built specially for emperors to recite poetry) in the Hua Qing Pool.

一面彼此见了礼，归坐献茶。未及叙谈，那长府官先就说道…（《红楼梦》） After an exchange of bows and verbal Salutations, the two men sat down and tea was served. The chamberlain cut short the customary civilities by coming straight to the point．（杨宪益、戴乃迭译）

“怎么？到底年青人不知道随时随地留意。暧，阿驹，你现在是党老爷了，地面上的情形一点不熟悉，你这党老爷怎么干得下去呀！……”（《子夜》）

“You don‟t know? Naturally a young man doesn‟t bother his head about such things. But now: you are a party man-one of the elite ! if you are going to do your job

properly, you must get to know about local conditions ….”（许孟雄、 A．C．Barnes译） 文法与翻译

文法包括字、句法和章法等。汉译英中的文法问题包括两个方面，一是汉语原文的语法，一是英语译文语法。文法问题是一个语言基础问题，就翻译而言，是一个基本功问题。尽管翻译时可以随心所欲，但不可逾矩。

聚也不易，散也不易。 It is not easy to gather, nor is it to part with each other. 市政府终于批准了建设高科园的资金项目。

The municipal government has finally voted the funds for building a high-tech park.

逻辑与翻译

一、思维逻辑和语言逻辑

每个民族都有其独特的思维方式，每一种语言都有其内在的逻辑。翻译时要尊重靶语的语言逻辑 大熊猫一胎产仔两只。An adult female giant panda gives birth to two cubs at a time． 上面的对比反映出汉英不同的思维逻辑：汉语只说“大熊猫”就足够了，因为“既然能产崽，必然是成年雌性熊猫，无须明言”，这是汉语的逻辑；英文里却要加上“adult'‟和“female”两宇，因为“既然能产崽，就应该是雌性，所以该明说出来”，这是英文的逻辑。

下面的汉英表达法，也反映出汉英不同的思维和语言逻辑： 闲人免进 Business only. 子细胞 daughter cell 二、逻辑与修辞

使用语言时要注意避免违反逻辑，翻译时亦是如此。当然，不合逻辑的用法作为一种修辞手段使用时，翻译时要保留。 也许是吴所长的开场白把瓶口封紧了，应该发言的两大派都暂时沉默，不愿过早地暴露火力。(《围墙》)

Perhaps Director Wu‟s opening remarks had sealed people‟s mouths，for the factions who should have begun the skirmish were temporarily silent, unwilling to reveal their firepower too early.

Tr. Rosie A．Roberts)原文中有两处比喻，一个是„„瓶口”，另一个是“暴露火力”。译者将前一个比喻隐去，采取意译的办法，将后一个比喻保留，采取直译的办法；此外，又把．“发言”译作“skirmish”，增添了一个比喻。“瓶口”“火力‟‟逻辑上不相关，因此换个地方另设比喻，既保证了比喻数量相等，又保证了逻辑上的一致。silent，unwilling to reveal their firepower too early．(Tr． Rosie A．Roberts) 三、逻辑和语法

汉语的名词译成英文的名词或代词时，要注意单复数及性别方面的逻辑问题。 这次吵架像夏天的暴风雨，吵的时候很厉害，过得很快。可是从此以后，两人全存了心，管制自己，避免说话冲突。(《围城》)

This quarrel was like a summer rainstorm——violent while it lasted but over very quickly．From then on，however，each determined to control himself and avoid saying anything that would start a conflict．

译文里的“himself”从逻辑上讲没有完全传达原文“自己“(夫妇两个)的所指范围。在此情况下，语法处理应考虑逻辑要求，可改译为：… they both determined to control themselves (Tr．Sun Yifeng) 四、逻辑与行文

行文叙述中要注意逻辑关联，适当加词，以保证思路的连续和线索的清晰： 车又停了，妇女千恩万谢地下了车。(祝承玉《钱包》)

When the bus stopped again，she rose，offered a thousand thanks to her newly-found friends，and slipped out of the bus．(Tr．He Zhifan) 五、正反表达法

翻译过程中的逻辑还表现为正反表达的方式，意思不变，译文则更合乎习惯。 对于汉译英，你越是细心越好。

You can never be too careful about Chinese-English translation．