GATT—GeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade,whichhasbeensupersededasaninternationalorganizationbytheWTO.AnupdatedGeneralAgreementisnowoneoftheWTO’sagreements.
GATT1947—Theold(pre-1994)versionoftheGATT.
GATT1994—ThenewversionoftheGeneralAgreement,incorporatedintotheWTO,whichgovernstradeingoods.Members—WTOgovernments(firstlettercapitalized,inWTOstyle).
MFN—Most-favoured-nationtreatment(GATTArticleI,GATSArticleIIandTRIPSArticle4),theprincipleofnot
discriminatingbetweenone’stradingpartners.nationaltreatment—Theprincipleofgivingothersthesametreatmentasone’sownnationals.
GATTArticleIIIrequiresthatimportsbetreatednolessfavourablythanthesameorsimilardomestically-producedgoodsoncetheyhavepassedcustoms.GATSArticleXVIIandTRIPSArticle3alsodealwithnationaltreatmentforservicesandintellectualpropertyprotection.
TPRB,TPRM—TheTradePolicyReviewBodyisGeneralCounciloperatingunderspecialproceduresformeetingstoreviewtradepoliciesandpracticesofindividualWTOmembersundertheTradePolicyReviewMechanism.
transparency—Degreetowhichtradepoliciesandpractices,andtheprocessbywhichtheyareestablished,areopenandpredictable.
UruguayRound—MultilateraltradenegotiationslaunchedatPuntadelEste,
UruguayinSeptember1986and
concludedinGenevainDecember1993.SignedbyMinistersinMarrakesh,Morocco,inApril1994.
Tariffs
binding,bound—see“tariffbinding”electroniccommerce—Theproduction,advertising,saleanddistributionofproductsvia
telecommunicationsnetworks.
free-rider—Acasualtermusedtoinferthatacountrywhichdoesnotmakeanytradeconcessions,profits,nonetheless,fromtariffcutsandconcessionsmadebyothercountriesinnegotiationsunderthemost-favoured-nationprinciple.
HarmonizedSystem—AninternationalnomenclaturedevelopedbytheWorldCustomsOrganization,whichisarrangedinsixdigitcodesallowingallparticipatingcountriestoclassifytradedgoodsonacommonbasis.Beyondthesixdigitlevel,countriesarefreetointroducenationaldistinctionsfortariffsandmanyotherpurposes.
ITA—InformationTechnologyAgreement,orformallytheMinisterial-DeclarationonTradeinInformationTechnologyProducts,underwhichparticipantswillremovetariffsonITproductsbytheyear2000.ITAII—NegotiationsaimedatexpandingITA’sproductcoverage.
nuisancetariff—Tariffsolowthatitcoststhegovernmentmoretocollectitthantherevenueitgenerates.
scheduleofconcessions—Listofboundtariffrates.
tariffbinding—Commitmentnottoincreasearateofdutybeyondanagreedlevel.Oncearateofdutyisbound,itmay
notberaisedwithoutcompensatingtheaffectedparties.
tariffescalation—Higherimportdutiesonsemi-processedproductsthanonrawmaterials,andhigherstillonfinishedproducts.Thispracticeprotectsdomesticprocessingindustriesanddiscouragesthedevelopmentofprocessingactivityinthecountrieswhererawmaterialsoriginate.tariffpeaks—Relativelyhightariffs,usuallyon“sensitive”products,amidstgenerallylowtarifflevels.For
industrializedcountries,tariffsof15%andabovearegenerallyrecognizedas“tariffpeaks”.
tariffs—Customsdutiesonmerchandiseimports.Leviedeitheronanadvalorembasis(percentageofvalue)orona
specificbasis(e.g.$7per100kgs.).Tariffsgivepriceadvantagetosimilarlocally-producedgoodsandraiserevenuesforthegovernment.
WCO—WorldCustomsOrganization,amultilateralbodylocatedinBrusselsthroughwhichparticipatingcountriesseektosimplifyandrationalizecustomsprocedures.
Non-tariffmeasures
anti-dumpingduties—ArticleVIoftheGATT1994permitstheimpositionofanti-dumpingdutiesagainstdumpedgoods,equaltothedifferencebetweentheirexportpriceandtheirnormalvalue,ifdumpingcausesinjurytoproducersofcompetingproductsintheimportingcountry.
circumvention—Measurestakenbyexporterstoevadeanti-dumpingorcountervailingduties.
countervailingmeasures—Actiontakenbytheimportingcountry,usuallyintheformofincreaseddutiestooffset
subsidiesgiventoproducersorexportersintheexportingcountry.
dumping—Occurswhengoodsare
exportedatapricelessthantheirnormalvalue,generallymeaningtheyare
exportedforlessthantheyaresoldinthedomesticmarketorthird-countrymarkets,oratlessthanproductioncost.
NTMs—Non-tariffmeasuressuchasquotas,importlicensingsystems,sanitaryregulations,prohibitions,etc.
priceundertaking—Undertakingbyanexportertoraisetheexportpriceoftheproducttoavoidthepossibilityofananti-dumpingduty.
PSI—Preshipmentinspection—thepracticeofemployingspecializedprivatecompaniestocheckshipmentdetailsofgoodsorderedoverseas—i.e.price,quantity,quality,etc.
QRs—Quantitativerestrictions—
specificlimitsonthequantityorvalueofgoodsthatcanbeimported(orexported)duringaspecifictimeperiod.rulesoforigin—Laws,regulationsandadministrativeprocedureswhich
determineaproduct’scountryoforigin.Adecisionbyacustomsauthorityonorigincandeterminewhetherashipmentfallswithinaquotalimitation,qualifiesforatariffpreferenceorisaffectedbyananti-dumpingduty.Theserulescanvaryfromcountrytocountry.
safeguardmeasures—Actiontakentoprotectaspecificindustryfromanunexpectedbuild-upof
imports—governedbyArticleXIXoftheGATT1994.
subsidy—Therearetwogeneraltypesof
subsidies:exportanddomestic.Anexportsubsidyisabenefitconferredonafirmbythegovernmentthatiscontingentonexports.Adomesticsubsidyisabenefitnotdirectlylinkedtoexports.
tariffication—Proceduresrelatingtotheagriculturalmarket-accessprovisioninwhichallnon-tariffmeasuresareconvertedintotariffs.
tradefacilitation—Removingobstaclestothemovementofgoodsacrossborders(e.g.simplificationofcustomsprocedures).
VRA,VER,OMA—Voluntaryrestraintarrangement,voluntaryexportrestraint,orderlymarketingarrangement.Bilateralarrangementswherebyanexportingcountry(governmentorindustry)agreestoreduceorrestrictexportswithouttheimportingcountryhavingtomakeuseofquotas,tariffsorotherimportcontrols.Textilesandclothing
ATC—TheWTOAgreementonTextilesandClothingwhichintegratestradeinthissectorbacktoGATTruleswithinaten-yearperiod.
carryforward—Whenanexportingcountryusespartofthefollowingyear’squotaduringthecurrentyear.
carryover—Whenanexportingcountryutilizesthepreviousyear’sunutilizedquota.
circumvention—Avoidingquotasandotherrestrictionsbyalteringthecountryoforiginofaproduct.
CTG—CouncilforTradeinGoods—overseesWTOagreementsongoods,includingtheATC.
integrationprogramme—ThephasingoutofMFArestrictionsinfourstages
startingon1January
1995andendingon1January2005.
ITCB—InternationalTextilesandClothingBureau—Geneva-basedgroupofsome20developingcountryexportersoftextilesandclothing.
MFA—MultifibreArrangement(1974-94)underwhichcountrieswhosemarketsaredisruptedbyincreasedimportsoftextilesandclothingfromanothercountrywereabletonegotiatequotarestrictions.swing—Whenanexportingcountrytransferspartofaquotafromoneproducttoanotherrestrainedproduct.TMB—TheTextilesMonitoringBody,consistingofachairmanplusten
membersactinginapersonalcapacity,overseestheimplementationofATCcommitments.
transitionalsafeguardmechanism—Allowsmemberstoimposerestrictionsagainstindividualexportingcountriesiftheimportingcountrycanshowthatbothoverallimportsofaproductandimportsfromtheindividualcountriesareenteringthecountryinsuchincreasedquantitiesasto
cause—orthreaten—seriousdamagetotherelevantdomesticindustry.Agriculture/SPS
Agenda2000—EC’sfinancialreformplansfor2000–06aimedatstrengtheningtheunionwithaviewtoreceivingnewmembers.IncludesreformoftheCAP(seebelow).
borderprotection—Anymeasurewhichactstorestrainimportsatpointofentry.BSE—Bovinespongiform
encephalopathy,or“madcowdisease”.box—Categoryofdomesticsupport.—
Greenbox:supportsconsiderednottodistorttradeandthereforepermittedwithnolimits.—Bluebox:permittedsupportslinkedtoproduction,but
subjecttoproductionlimitsandthereforeminimallytrade-distorting.—Amberbox:supportsconsideredtodistorttradeandthereforesubjecttoreductioncommitments.
CairnsGroup—Groupofagriculturalexportingnationslobbyingforagriculturaltradeliberalization.Itwasformedin1986inCairns,Australiajustbeforethe
beginningoftheUruguayRound.Currentmembership:Argentina,Australia,Bolivia,Brazil,Canada,Chile,Colombia,CostaRica,Guatemala,Indonesia,Malaysia,NewZealand,Paraguay,Philippines,SouthAfrica,ThailandandUruguay.CAP—CommonAgriculturalPolicy—TheEU’scomprehensivesystemofproductiontargetsandmarketingmechanismsdesignedtomanage
agriculturaltradewithintheEUandwiththerestoftheworld.
CodexAlimentarius—FAO/WHO
commissionthatdealswithinternationalstandardsonfoodsafety.
distortion—Whenpricesandproductionarehigherorlowerthanlevelsthatwouldusuallyexistinacompetitivemarket.deficiencypayment—Paidby
governmentstoproducersofcertain
commoditiesandbasedonthedifferencebetweenatargetpriceandthedomesticmarketpriceorloanrate,whicheveristheless.
EEP—Exportenhancementprogramme—programmeofUSexportsubsidiesgivengenerallytocompetewith
subsidizedagriculturalexportsfromtheEUoncertainexportmarkets.foodsecurity—Conceptwhich
discouragesopeningthedomesticmarkettoforeignagriculturalproductsontheprinciplethatacountrymustbeasself-sufficientaspossibleforitsbasicdietaryneeds.
internalsupport—Encompassesanymeasurewhichactstomaintainproducerpricesatlevelsabovethoseprevailingininternationaltrade;directpaymentstoproducers,includingdeficiencypayments,andinputandmarketingcostreductionmeasuresavailableonlyforagriculturalproduction.
InternationalOfficeofEpizootics—Dealswithinternationalstandardsconcerninganimalhealth.
multifunctionality—Ideathatagriculturehasmanyfunctionsinadditiontoproducingfoodandfibre,e.g.
environmentalprotection,landscapepreservation,ruralemployment,etc.Seenon-tradeconcerns.
non-tradeconcerns—Similarto
multifunctionality.ThepreambleoftheAgricultureAgreementspecifiesfoodsecurityandenvironmentalprotectionasexamples.Alsocitedbymembersareruraldevelopmentandemployment,andpovertyalleviation.
peaceclause—ProvisioninArticle13oftheAgricultureAgreementsays
agriculturalsubsidiescommittedundertheagreementcannotbechallengedunderotherWTOagreements,in
particulartheSubsidiesAgreementandGATT.Expiresattheendof2003.
reformprocess/program—TheUruguayRoundAgricultureAgreementstartsareformprocess.Itsetsoutafirststep,in
theprocess,i.e.aprogramforreducingsubsidiesandprotectionandotherreforms.CurrentnegotiationslaunchedunderArticle20areforcontinuingthereformprocess.
SPSregulations—Sanitaryand
Phytosanitaryregulations—governmentstandardstoprotecthuman,animalandplantlifeandhealth,tohelpensurethatfoodissafeforconsumption.
variablelevy—Customsdutyratewhichvariesinresponsetodomesticpricecriterion.
Intellectualproperty
BerneConvention—Treaty,administeredbyWIPO,fortheprotectionoftherightsofauthorsintheirliteraryandartisticworks.
CBD—ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.compulsorylicensing—Forpatents:whentheauthoritieslicensecompaniesorindividualsotherthanthepatentownertousetherightsofthepatent—tomake,use,sellorimportaproductunderpatent(i.e.apatentedproductoraproductmadebyapatentedprocess)—withoutthepermissionofthepatentowner.AllowedundertheTRIPS
Agreementprovidedcertainproceduresandconditionsarefulfilled.Seealsogovernmentuse.
counterfeit—Unauthorized
representationofaregisteredtrademarkcarriedongoodsidenticalorsimilartogoodsforwhichthetrademarkis
registered,withaviewtodeceivingthepurchaserintobelievingthathe/sheisbuyingtheoriginalgoods.
exhaustion—Theprinciplethatonceaproducthasbeensoldonamarket,theintellectualpropertyownernolongerhasanyrightsoverit.(AdebateamongWTOmembergovernmentsiswhetherthisappliestoproductsputonthemarketundercompulsorylicences.)Countries’lawsvaryastowhethertheright
continuestobeexhaustediftheproductisimportedfromonemarketintoanother,whichaffectstheowner’srightsovertradeintheprotectedproduct.Seealsoparallelimports.
geographicalindications—Placenames(orwordsassociatedwithaplace)usedtoidentifyproducts(forexample,
“Champagne”,“Tequila”or“Roquefort”)whichhaveaparticularquality,reputationorothercharacteristicbecausetheycomefromthatplace
governmentuse—Forpatents:whenthegovernmentitselfusesorauthorizesotherpersonstousetherightsoverapatentedproductorprocess,forgovernmentpurposes,withoutthe
permissionofthepatentowner.Seealsocompulsorylicensing.
intellectualpropertyrights—Ownershipofideas,includingliteraryandartisticworks(protectedbycopyright),
inventions(protectedbypatents),signsfordistinguishinggoodsofanenterprise(protectedbytrademarks)andotherelementsofindustrialproperty.IPRs—Intellectualpropertyrights.
LisbonAgreement—Treaty,administeredbyWIPO,fortheprotectionofgeographicalindicationsandtheirinternationalregistration.MadridAgreement—Treaty,
administeredbyWIPO,fortherepressionoffalseordeceptiveindicationsofsourceongoods.
mailbox—ReferstotherequirementoftheTRIPSAgreementapplyingtoWTOmemberswhichdonotyetprovideproductpatentprotectionfor
pharmaceuticalsandforagriculturalchemicals.Since1January1995,whentheWTOagreementsenteredintoforce,thesecountrieshavetoestablishameansbywhichapplicationsofpatentsfortheseproductscanbefiled.(Anadditionalrequirementsaystheymustalsoputinplaceasystemforgranting“exclusivemarketingrights”fortheproductswhosepatentapplicationshavebeenfiled.)
parallelimports—Whenaproductmadelegally(i.e.notpirated)abroadis
importedwithoutthepermissionoftheintellectualpropertyright-holder(e.g.thetrademarkorpatentowner).Somecountriesallowthis,othersdonot.
ParisConvention—Treaty,administeredbyWIPO,fortheprotectionofindustrialintellectualproperty,i.e.patents,utilitymodels,industrialdesigns,etc.piracy—Unauthorizedcopyingofmaterialsprotectedbyintellectualpropertyrights(suchascopyright,trademarks,patents,geographical
indications,etc)forcommercialpurposesandunauthorizedcommercialdealingincopiedmaterials.
RomeConvention—Treaty,administeredbyWIPO,UNESCOandILO,fortheprotectionoftheworksofperformers,broadcastingorganizationsandproducersofphonograms.
TRIPS—Trade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights.
UPOV—InternationalUnionfortheProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlantsWashingtonTreaty—Treatyforthe
protectionofintellectualpropertyinrespectoflay-outdesignsofintegratedcircuits.
WIPO—WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization.
Investment
export-performancemeasure—
Requirementthatacertainquantityofproductionmustbeexported.FDI—Foreigndirectinvestment.
local-contentmeasure—Requirementthattheinvestorpurchaseacertainamountoflocalmaterialsfor
incorporationintheinvestor’sproduct.product-mandating—Requirementthattheinvestorexporttocertaincountriesorregion.
trade-balancingmeasure—Requirementthattheinvestoruseearningsfromexportstopayforimports.
TRIMS—Trade-relatedinvestmentmeasures.
Disputesettlement
AppellateBody—Anindependent
seven-personbodythat,uponrequestbyoneormorepartiestothedispute,reviewsfindingsinpanelreports.automaticity—The“automatic”chronologicalprogressionforsettlingtradedisputesinregardtopanelestablishment,termsofreference,compositionandadoptionprocedures.DSB—DisputeSettlementBody—whentheWTOGeneralCouncilmeetstosettletradedisputes.
DSU—TheUruguayRound
UnderstandingonRulesandProceduresGoverningtheSettlementofDisputes.nullificationandimpairment—Damage
toacountry’sbenefitsandexpectationsfromitsWTOmembershipthroughanothercountry’schangeinitstraderegimeorfailuretocarryoutitsWTOobligations.
panel—Consistingofthreeexperts,thisindependentbodyisestablishedbytheDSBtoexamineandissue
recommendationsonaparticulardisputeinthelightofWTOprovisions.
Services
accountingrate—Intelecoms,the
chargemadebyonecountry’stelephonenetworkoperatorforcallsoriginatinginanothercountry.
commercialpresence—Havinganoffice,branch,orsubsidiaryinaforeigncountry.GATS—TheWTO’sGeneralAgreementonTradeinServices.
generalobligations—Obligationswhichshouldbeappliedtoallservicessectorattheentryintoforceoftheagreement.Initialcommitments—Tradeliberalizingcommitmentsinserviceswhichmembersarepreparedtomakeearlyon.
modesofdelivery—Howinternationaltradeinservicesissuppliedand
consumed.Mode1:crossbordersupply;mode2:consumptionabroad;mode3:foreigncommercialpresence;andmode4:movementofnaturalpersons.multi-modal—Transportationusingmorethanonemode.IntheGATSnegotiations,essentiallydoor-to-doorservicesthatincludeinternationalshipping.
nationalschedules—TheequivalentoftariffschedulesinGATT,layingdownthecommitments
accepted—voluntarilyorthroughnegotiation—byWTOmembers.naturalpersons—People,asdistinctfromjuridicalpersonssuchascompaniesandorganizations.
offer—Acountry’sproposalforfurtherliberalization.
protocols—AdditionalagreementsattachedtotheGATS.TheSecondProtocoldealswiththe1995
commitmentsonfinancialservices.TheThirdProtocoldealswithmovementofnaturalpersons.
prudence,prudential—Infinancialservices,termsusedtodescribeanobjectiveofmarketregulationbyauthoritiestoprotectinvestorsanddepositors,toavoidinstabilityorcrises.schedule—“ScheduleofSpecific
Commitments”—AWTOmember’slistofcommitmentsregardingmarketaccessandbindingsregardingnationaltreatment.
specificcommitments—See“schedule”.Regionalism/tradeanddevelopmentACP—African,CaribbeanandPacificcountries.Groupof71countrieswithpreferentialtradingrelationwiththeEUundertheformerLom?TreatynowcalledtheCotonouAgreement.
AndeanCommunity—Bolivia,Colombia,Ecuador,PeruandVenezuela.APEC—AsiaPacificEconomicCooperationforum.
ASEAN—AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations.ThesevenASEANmembersoftheWTO—Brunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,thePhilippines,SingaporeandThailand—oftenspeakintheWTOasonegroupongeneralissues.Theother
ASEANmembersareLaosandVietnam.Caricom—TheCaribbeanCommunityandCommonMarketcomprises15countries.
CTD—TheWTOCommitteeonTradeandDevelopment
Customsunion—Membersapplyacommonexternaltariff(e.g.theEC).EC—EuropeanCommunities(officialnameoftheEuropeanUnionintheWTO).
EFTA—EuropeanFreeTradeAssociation.freetradearea—Tradewithinthegroupisdutyfreebutmemberssetowntariffsonimportsfromnon-members(e.g.NAFTA).
G15—Groupof15developingcountriesactingasthemainpoliticalorganfortheNon-AlignedMovement.
G77—Groupofdevelopingcountriessetupin1964attheendofthefirstUNCTAD(originally77,butnowmorethan130countries).
G7—Groupofsevenleadingindustrialcountries:Canada,France,Germany,Italy,Japan,UnitedKingdom,UnitedStates.GRULAC—Informalgroupof
Latin-AmericanmembersoftheWTO.GSP—GeneralizedSystemofPreferences—programmesbydevelopedcountriesgrantingpreferentialtariffstoimportsfromdevelopingcountries.
HLM—WTOHigh-LevelMeetingforLDCs,heldinOctober1997inGeneva.
ITC—TheInternationalTradeCentre,originallyestablishedbytheoldGATTandisnowoperatedjointlybytheWTOandtheUN,thelatteractingthroughUNCTAD.Focalpointfortechnicalcooperationontradepromotionofdevelopingcountries.LDCs—Least-developedcountries.
MERCOSUR—Argentina,Brazil,ParaguayandUruguay.
NAFTA—NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreementofCanada,MexicoandtheUS.
Quad—Canada,EC,JapanandtheUnitedStates.
SACU—SouthernAfricanCustomsUnioncomprisingBotswana,Lesotho,Namibia,SouthAfricaandSwaziland.S&D—“Specialanddifferential
treatment”provisionsfordevelopingcountries.ContainedinseveralWTOagreements.
UNCITRAL—UnitedNationsCentreforInternationalTradeLaw,draftsmodellawssuchastheoneongovernmentprocurement.
UNCTAD—TheUNConferenceonTradeandDevelopment.
Tradeandenvironment
Agenda21—TheAgendaforthe21stCentury—adeclarationfromthe1992EarthSummit(UNConferenceontheEnvironmentandDevelopment)heldinRiodeJaneiro.
ArticleXX—GATTArticlelistingallowed“exceptions”tothetraderules.
BaselConvention—AnMEAdealingwithhazardouswaste.
BTA—Bordertaxadjustment
CITES—ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpecies.AnMEA.CTE—TheWTOCommitteeonTradeandEnvironment.
EST—Environmentally-soundtechnology.
EST&P—ESTandproducts.
exante,expost—Beforeandafterameasureisapplied.
LCA—Lifecycleanalysis—amethodofassessingwhetheragoodorserviceisenvironmentallyfriendly.
MEA—Multilateralenvironmentalagreement.
MontrealProtocol—AnMEAdealingwiththedepletionoftheearth’sozonelayer.
PPM—Processandproductionmethod.TBT—TheWTOAgreementonTechnicalBarrierstoTrade.
waiver—PermissiongrantedbyWTOmembersallowingaWTOmembernottocomplywithnormalcommitments.Waivershavetimelimitsandextensionshavetobejustified.
2015年8月
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