ICU身体约束实践及缩减行动的研究现状
身体约束为国内外ICU中常见的临床实践。当前国外学者密切关注身体约束实践中日益凸显的风险,国际上 “身体约束缩减行动”的趋势已经明朗化。ICU护士是实施身体约束实践的决策者,护士对于身体约束的知识和态度强烈地关联到实践。通过教育等干预措施建立正确的身体约束的知识、态度和实践是实现身体约束缩减目标的有效策略。本文对近年来国际上身体约束实践及其缩减行动相关研究文献进行综述。
1 身体约束的概述
1.1 身体约束定义及指南
美国医疗财政管理局(Health Care Financing Administration HCFA)定义身体约束为:使用任何物理或机械性设备、材料或工具附加在或临近于患者的身体,患者不能轻易将其移除,限制患者的自由活动或使患者不能正常接近自己的身体 [1]。ICU内常用身体约束的方法有:床栏、约束背心或约束夹克等、肩带式或腰带式的约束带、腕部或踝部约束带、连指手套。
美国食品药物管理局(Food and Drug Administration)和JCAHO指南推荐,当医护人员决定对患者实施身体约束应遵循:尊重患者的权利;充分评估患者;取得临床医师的医嘱;优先寻找替代措施;知情同意的征询;选择适宜的约束工具;执业护士方具有准入资格;实时评估和调整以维持患者的安全和舒适;尽可能及早去除身体约束;间断松解身体约束进行肢体功能锻炼和皮肤护理;规范文件记录。同时要求医疗机构应结合法律法规,将身体约束规范以患者和家属能够理解的语言标示于醒目处告知患者,加强对合理使用身体约束的专项培训。
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1.2 ICU身体约束实践
ICU是危重症医学的临床实践基地,多学科的临床知识和高端医学技能规范应用[2],以期为重症患者提供生命支持和密切监护[1]。ICU重症患者因病情需要常被植入侵入性装置和管道,诸如:人工气道、动静脉导管、CRRT管道、鼻饲或造瘘管、脑室及体腔引流管等等。诚然,这些管道对患者而言是极其不舒适的,但是如果一旦被非计划性移除,将产生意外乃至死亡等灾难性的后果。谵妄是近年来ICU日益严重的问题[3],或称ICU精神症候群或ICU综合征,可导致严重的不良后果[4],最常见的是患者自发的非计划性拔管[5],并由此而导致再插管,延长机械通气时间[6]和ICU住院天数[7]、提高住院成本[8]等系列负面临床影响。
身体约束应用于ICU以培养患者对侵入性管道的耐受性[9],规避潜在的非计划性拔管的风险[10]。但使用实施身体约束必须权衡利弊。学者纷纷呼吁[5,11,12]身体约束实践重新面临挑战,因身体约束实践伴随着非计划性拔管的高风险报道为44%[13]。此外,身体约束可导致患者生理性损伤和心理障碍[1],比如高血压、体位性低血压、心动过速、循环障碍、神经和皮肤损伤、肢体挛缩、肌肉萎缩、二便失禁、水肿、压疮、心跳骤停,扼死,窒息死亡[14];30%经历过身体约束的患者在访谈中抱怨在身体约束的过程中感觉到了孤独、羞辱、无力[15],激动、抗拒、愤怒和害怕[16]。这就意味着几十年被用来预防对治疗干扰的身体约束的实践,其可行性遭到质疑,它不仅不能有效保障患者的安全,而且关联到某些致命性的后果[11,12]。
2 国际身体约束使用现状和身体约束缩减行动
2.1 身体约束使用率概况
身体约束的使用率在护理之家为4-85%,在医院为8%-68%[17],普通病房的约束比
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例为9%-20%,ICU则高达12%-43%[18]。结果数据的差异源于各国之间的文化背景、医疗的环境、法律法规、身体约束持有的态度、约束定义、样本量的大小、资料的收集方式等不同 [19,20,21]。
近年来国际学者们对身体约束密切关注[22],越来越来的研究重新审视这一实践的正确性和合理性[23]。对于使用身体约束的争议导致了各国在使用率在的很大分歧。美国医学指南建议使用身体约束多于使用化学约束[24],如Martin等[14]调查在美国的3个ICU中有40%的患者实施身体约束。而在英国、挪威和丹麦[14],身体约束既不被接受也不被广泛使用,由此患者的化学约束率明显高于其他国家[22]。欧洲一个横断面研究中,显示在葡萄牙(2个ICU)和英国(4个ICU)中未见身体约束;但在意大利(2个ICU)、瑞士(5个ICU),西班牙(2个ICU)和法国(12个ICU)有40-50%的患者实施了身体约束[25]。此外,Bernard等[25]深入调查了121名在法国ICU的患者, 82%ICU患者接受到身体约束,其中65%患者在机械通气治疗时间全程的50%以上是处于被身体约束状态。南非,219名ICU患者中104位(48%)处于约束状态,约束天数从1-52天不等[2]。埃及一份研究显示101名身体约束患者中身体约束时间>12h为28%[26]。约束被认为是一个很普通的临床实践在韩国[27]和日本平均身体约束率统计为25.5%[28]。梁素娟等[18]2008年的一份研究中显示,39.04的ICU患者被身体约束,其中全身麻醉后为41.13%;气管插管为73.76%;神经外科患者为46.81[18]。
2.2身体约束的要素分析
2.2.1实施身体约束的原因及约束工具
实施身体约束的原因国际上已达成共识[15,25, 29,30, 31],主要是ICU护士认为身体约束是预防发生非计划性拔管和坠床,减少对治疗干预的主要对策。伦理方面的考虑是英国等国
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家维持低身体约束率的主要原因[24]。Turgay[32]和Akansel[30]分别于2007和 2009报道最常见的身体约束类型为上肢和下肢的约束,其次是床栏。2012年Chiba等[28]新观点为床栏约束率为首,随后为连指手套。在荷兰、德国和瑞士进行的一份研究提出带状约束是最为不舒适的约束方式,床栏约束被认为有较好的舒适性[33]。但2010年Evans[34]很尖锐指出:当务之急是建立评估是否实施身体约束的可行性临床框架,而不是过多关注于约束工具的评价。
2.2.2 护患比率和患者特征
Nahed 等[1]2013年提出高护患比可以降低身体约束相关并发症,保证患者安全。同年的两份研究中,Goethals等[35] 和Bernard等[25] 持反对意见,认为身体约束使用率和护患比之间没有显著相关性。日本Chiba[28]提出推论:身体约束缩减行动,可以不需要增加护患配比。
实施身体约束取决于患者的特性,比如独立程度,认知能力,是否有坠床或跌倒史等
[33]。评估没有非计划性拔管和坠床风险的患者很少启用身体约束,比如昏迷患者。但身体
约束广泛使用于谵妄和躁动患者,也被意外地应用于一些清醒和平静的病人,法国Bernard 等[25]的研究揭示29%的ICU中,有50%清醒的患者处于身体约束状态。神经外科ICU的身体约束率显示为所有ICU中最高。
2.2.3 身体约束相关的法规和要求
学者称相关的法律和法规有助于减少身体约束率,故一些国家建立了关于身体约束的法律和法规。比如使用身体约束必须要遵循医嘱;约束医嘱的有效期为24小时[28]等。再如,联邦法规警告:请记住,无论你使用或不使用身体约束都存在潜在的法律风险,基于人道
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主义和道德伦理,尽可能避免使用。使用身体约束不是置管后常规流程,虽然很便捷,但一定是最后的选择。
Bernard 等[25]报道68%的ICU中半数以上患者开始身体约束没有医师的医嘱,70%的ICU中半数以上患者撤除身体约束时同样缺失医嘱。学者建议医师应该加强对身体约束的关注,身体约束必须遵循医师的医嘱[25,33]。护理文档记录作为身体约束的基本要素,应该详细记录征询知情同意、遵循的政策和操作的规程、尝试的替代措施,包括为什么,怎样,在何处,期限以及间隔的放松时间,都必须及时客观地在文档中体现。
2.2.4 身体替代措施
根据临床具体情况选用合适的身体约束替代措施:将患者移到靠近护理工作站;保持患者的门敞开;高科技的患者离床感应床垫应用;床铺高度调至低位;床旁呼唤铃方便触及;降低噪音;将管道包裹或遮盖以脱离患者视野;指导患者触摸管道所在的位置提高患者对管道的认知和维护意识等等。
2.3身体约束缩减行动
“身体约束缩减行动”又称为“身体约束最小化策略”,旨在将身体约束率降低、身体约束范围缩小、停止不必要的身体约束,甚至迈向无身体的约束的医疗环境。
美国FDA报道其国内每年约有一百人死于使用身体约束使用不当。近年来医疗保险和医疗补助服务机构(CMS)、联合医疗保健机构评审委员会(JCAHO)等国际医疗监管和认证机构对减少身体约束产生了浓厚的兴趣[36]。医疗保健专业人士和研究人员撰写文章和书籍推动身体约束缩减策略,很多国家将其推举成全国性的医疗行为。早在2001年,加拿
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大安太略省颁布新立法题为“最小化身体约束行动(Physical Restraint Minimization Action,PRMA)”,强制所有医务必院启动缩减身体约束行动 [31]。美国危重症学会[32]的临床实践指南警示:使用身体约束务必慎重考虑。学者们热议的焦点涉及该实践是否能够有效的控制谵妄和减少伤害的风险?是否违反人权和尊严;如何进行临床和伦理的权衡;身体约束是否能完全避免[37,38]。
3护士角色与身体约束
3.1护士对于身体约束的决策
护士是身体约束实践的主要决策者,洞察护士决策的过程至关重要[39,40]。质性访谈了解到护士决策轨迹如下:“ICU没有约束就没有患者的安全”;“没有约束,个人及医院将面临法律责任”;“患者可能坠床或严重伤害自己”;“要通过约束保护患者”;“我们必须约束,因为人手不够”;“没有身体约束以外的替代措施”;“身体约束不会干扰患者”等[31]。2012年比利时的一份质性研究揭示护士决策身体约束的过程是一个侧重安全性,以伦理为主导的,动态的,可逆的,复杂的运动轨迹,护士相关因素和背景相关因素在其间发挥很大作用[41]。取决于患者的病情特点和行为特点[42],护士相关因素诸如个性、经验也不可避免的影响到了决策的结果,低年资的护士比高年资护士更倾向于做出约束的决定[43]。背景因素如病房的布局设施、夜班等都是导致约束的主要原因。
3.2护士具备的身体约束的知识、态度、实践和缩减策略
身体约束缩减行动的核心元素是护士的观念,即关于约束的知识、态度和实践,而不是医院管理层面简单的自上而下的指令性活动[39]。护士对约束的知识和态度直接影响到身体约束的实践[33, 43,44],是缩减身体约束行动的重要的障碍[9]。因此,缩减身体约束需要转变
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护士的态度[20]。建议因地制宜地制定护理管理和培训教育措施,树立身体约束正确的知识和态度 [18]。当然,仅凭借教育的力量以缩减身体约束是单薄的,集束化策略将有助于加速推进实践,比如辅以身体约束咨询委员会支持,政策法规完善,环境设备改进,优化替代措施,应用协助决策身体约束的参考工具等都是被众多国际研究极力推荐达成目标的方法
[39]。这些集束化的策略有助于消除由于护士经验不足或态度偏倚所产生的身体约束率居高
不下的现状。
4 研究建议及局限性
以循证的视角,深入洞察护士的知识和态度[45],实施教育和干预,主动评判性思考,制度政策层面的支持[35],建立适宜的约束知识、态度和实践,是迈向约束缩减乃至无约束化的医疗环境[46,47]的必由之路。本文因篇幅所限,对身体约束的缩减策略未能穷尽为本文局限性,期待深入探讨和完善。
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